Using surface elevation tables and marker horizons to evaluate resiliency and trajectories of tidal marshes and restoration projects in the Snohomish River estuary

The abundance of tidal wetlands has been increasingly impacted by environmental changes, human alterations and sea-level rise around the world. Elevation and sediment dynamics control tidal wetland vegetation colonization, assemblages, resiliency, and recovery trajectories. Seal level rise and hydromodifications may threaten the resiliency of existing tidal marshes, and impact the recovery trajectories of restoration projects. The Snohomish river delta currently supports the second largest extent of tidal wetlands in the Puget Sound, and has become the focus of what could be the largest cumulative estuary restoration effort in Puget Sound. However, we currently know very little about elevation and sediment dynamics in the Snohomish River estuary and the resiliency of existing vegetated marshes and restoration projects. To address this need, we installed surface elevation tables (SETs) and marker horizons (MHs) in 2013-2014 inside several tidal marsh complexes that represent a gradient of land use histories and recovery trajectories to determine sediment accretion rates and shallow soil processes (e.g., subsidence, compaction, uplift) in the Snohomish River estuary. SETs and MHs were installed in two emergent marshes in the lower estuary that have not been previously diked, inside Ebey Island where dikes failed naturally about 75 years ago, and inside a restoration site that was breached in 1994. Preliminary data from these SETs and MHs indicate that accretion rates range from 4-15 mm per year, and that shallow subsidence is occurring at all sites at a rate of 2-10 mm per year. Although continued long-term monitoring will provide better estimates of elevation and sediment dynamics at these sites and within the Snohomish River estuary, we use these preliminary data to evaluate tidal marsh resiliency and recovery trajectories within the context of sea level rise and restoration in the Snohomish River estuary

Pre-project monitoring of the Qwuloolt restoration in the Snohomish River Estuary

The Qwuloolt restoration site is approximately 150 hectares of former estuarine wetland in the Snohomish River system that will have tidal inundation returned via levee breach in late 2015. Qwuloolt is one of several large restoration projects planned for the Snohomish River estuary in the next decade for recovery of salmon and other biota, which together could restore several thousand acres and constitute one of the most significant restoration efforts in Puget Sound. In 2008 we began development and implementation of a comprehensive monitoring plan for Qwuloolt that evaluates a broad suite of abiotic and biotic attributes (e.g., land forms, hydrology, and chemistry; taxonomic composition of plant, invertebrate, fish, and bird assemblages). Four years of pre-breach data document clear contrasts between Qwuloolt and adjacent reference sites. Qwuloolt is subsided, hydrologically isolated, and its biota composed of relatively few species and dominated by nonnative, freshwater species. These results provide an invaluable foundation for scientifically rigorous post-breach evaluation of project performance, and contribute to estuary-wide understanding of cumulative effects of restoration and basic estuarine ecology of Puget Sound

Evaluating common trends in Chinook density and the influence of temperature and salinity patterns among distributary channels in a large river estuary to aid evaluation, planning, and prioritization of restoration activities

Landscape context is critical in estuary restoration planning and assessment due to the complexity and size of estuaries, and the unique attributes and cumulative effects of individual restoration projects. In addition, the diversity and mobility of estuarine species, in particular juvenile salmon, highlights the importance of landscape position given certain locations in the delta are less accessible to salmon. The Snohomish River delta has been the focus of major estuary restoration efforts in recent years and efforts could result in the largest cumulative estuary restoration action in Puget Sound. While several large projects have been initiated/competed in recent years, information to help prioritization and planning for future projects is currently lacking. We used a time series analysis of Chinook densities from 2011-2015 to assess general patterns in fish use and the effect of temperature and salinity through the outmigration period among the mainstem Snohomish River and the three primary distributaries. Two common trends in Chinook salmon density among the distributary and mainstem channels reflect patterns attributable to potential life history variation interpreted as an estuary rearing/residence component and general freshwater rearing (parr) outmigration. Furthermore, peak densities occurred earlier when above average temperatures were observed throughout the estuary. The differential patterns in Chinook density and the apparent influence of temperature may aid restoration evaluation, planning and prioritization aimed at increasing capacity for estuary rearing Chinook salmon throughout the delta and provide input regarding the potential effect of changing temperatures due to climate change

Density-dependent and landscape effects upon estuary rearing in Chinook salmon: insights from long-term monitoring in four Puget Sound estuaries

Juvenile Chinook salmon are well known for utilizing estuarine habitats within the tidal delta for rearing during outmigration. Several studies have linked population responses to availability of estuary habitat, and support the hypothesis that estuarine habitats are vital rearing areas for juvenile Chinook salmon. However, these coarse-scale studies provide little insight on how specific estuarine habitats contribute to rearing potential for salmon. We integrate long-term monitoring data from four estuaries of Puget Sound (Nooksack, Skagit, Snohomish, and Nisqually) to examine whether 1) Chinook populations in these rivers are limited by restricted estuary habitat, 2) hatchery releases can influence density dependent relationships in estuaries, 3) highly connected sites support higher densities of salmon, and 4) different habitat types support higher rearing densities of Chinook salmon. Across sampling locations within estuary systems, average annual rearing densities varied over four orders of magnitude. We found strong support for density dependence, habitat type, landscape connectivity, and hatchery release numbers influencing rearing densities, although all factors were not necessarily as important within each system, and effects of habitat type were particularly variable. Further work using bioenergetics models suggest that habitat-dependent variation in temperature can strongly influence growth in different systems, and that multiple habitats are likely important to provide suitable habitat for extended estuary rearing. These analyses are useful for determining the relative contribution of connectivity, cohort population size, and local habitat conditions for growth potential of Chinook salmon using estuarine habitats at early life stages, and shed light on likely impacts of climate change upon rearing conditions

Trophic structure of pelagic fish and jellyfish across spatial and seasonal gradients in the greater Puget Sound

Recent analysis of community structure in the pelagic ecosystem of the greater Puget Sound has revealed a shift in species composition and abundance in some areas from those dominated by fish to those dominated gelatinous mesozooplankton (“jellyfish”). Unfortunately, the mechanisms behind these shifts are unclear due to a deficit of ecological understanding of this system. The analysis of foodweb structure, which reflects the flow of carbon and nutrients, is useful to complement composition and abundance information in order to understand the energetic processes underlying pelagic communities and why they may be changing. In this talk, we examine foodweb structure and trophic ecology of middle trophic level pelagic fish and jellyfish in six oceanographic sub-basins in Puget Sound from April to October 2011. Specifically, we assessed spatial and seasonal variation in 1) the isotopic composition of abundant species of salmonids, forage fish and jellyfish, 2) the trophic overlap between fish and jellyfish and 3) foodweb attributes of whole pelagic communities including niche width, trophic length and basal resource diversity. At the species level, there were strong spatial differences in isotopic composition among sub-basins. Seasonal patterns, possibly suggesting ontogenetic diet shifts or changes in basal carbon sources, were also evident but were more pronounced in fish than jellyfish. The degree of trophic overlap between fish and jellyfish varied among sub-basins and generally decreased seasonally. At the community level, overall community niche width was higher in Whidbey basin in spring and summer months then switched to a north-south gradient in fall months with the highest value in South Sound. Both the trophic length and basal resource diversity exhibited contrasting seasonal patterns among basins with values decreasing seasonally in northern basins (Whidbey and Rosario) and increasing in southern basins (Central and South Sound). Taken as a whole, our observations suggest that the trophic ecology and overall structure of pelagic fish and jellyfish are heavily influenced by local processes at the sub-basin scale as well as temporally dynamic biotic processes such as changes in body size. Our analysis provides an important groundwork to understand how Puget Sound’s pelagic ecosystem is structured and why it may be changing

Movements of sub-adult Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, in Puget Sound, Washington, as indicated by ultrasonic tracking

Salmonids show a wide variety of migration patterns. Such variation is especially prevalent in Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. This species migrates to coastal and open ocean waters, and the tendency to use these different marine environments varies markedly among populations. For example, some Chinook salmon that enter Puget Sound do not migrate to the sea as juveniles in their first year but rather remain as “residents” through (at least) the following Spring. Known locally as blackmouth, these fish are the focus of extensive sport fisheries. In this study, we used acoustic telemetry to examine questions surrounding resident Chinook salmon in Puget Sound. The overall objective of this study was to determine the extent to resident and migratory behavior patterns are distinct or ends of a continuum of movement patterns, and then characterize the movements of resident fish. We first assessed the proportion of fish, caught and tagged as immature residents (inferred from the locations and dates of capture), that remained within Puget Sound and the proportion that moved to the coastal region, and tested the hypotheses that origin (wild or hatchery), location and season of tagging, fish size and condition factor would influence the tendency to remain resident. Second, we characterized the movements by resident fish with Puget Sound at a series of different spatial scales: movement among the major basins, travel rates, and areas of concentration within Puget Sound. Third, we tested the model of seasonal north-south movement patterns by examining the distribution of detections over the whole area and year. Because residents represent a significant portion of the Puget Sound Chinook salmon Evolutionarily Significant Unit, currently listed as Threatened under the U. S. Endangered Species Act, better understanding of their movements in Puget Sound will help identify critical habitat use patterns and evaluate fishery management objectives as the species crosses jurisdictional boundaries

Medical Treatment of a Staghorn Calculus: The Ultimate Noninvasive Therapy.

A 77-year-old female presented with bilateral staghorn calculi. She underwent an uneventful left percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL); the stone analysis revealed a 90% struvite and 10% calcium phosphate stone. Treatment of the right stone was postponed by the patient. During the next 9 months, her family physician gave her multiple courses of culture-directed antibiotics due to breakthrough urinary-tract infections, despite her also being on a prophylactic antibiotic. After 9 months, she agreed to undergo her right PCNL. Preoperatively, a non-contrast CT scan was obtained; it revealed complete resolution of the right staghorn calculi

Identifying Critical Periods of Growth and Mortality in Pacific Salmon and Deciphering Underlying Mechanisms

Size-selective mortality (SSM) is a significant force regulating recruitment of salmon. The life stage(s) and habitat(s) in which SSM occurs can vary among species, stocks, and life history strategies. Moreover, the relationship between juvenile growth and survival is unclear for most salmon stocks. The first marine growth season is commonly regarded as a critical period for growth and survival. For ESA-listed Puget Sound Chinook salmon, preliminary studies suggest that: at least one critical period occurs during the first marine growth season; growth is limited more by food supply than energetic quality of prey or thermal regime; and higher growth and survival rates correspond with higher contributions of key prey like crab larvae. We can identify critical periods using scales to create growth histories of a juvenile cohort sampled serially at successive life stages throughout its first marine growth season. Divergences in growth trajectories indicate reduced contributions of smaller members to subsequent life stages. These divergences indicate critical periods of growth and survival and the magnitude of SSM. We can diagnose factors affecting growth during critical periods through bioenergetics modeling simulations linked to directed sampling of diet, growth and environmental conditions. This approach could improve run forecasting and focus restoration efforts

Evaluating Responses of Nearshore Fish to Removal of the Elwha River Dams

Removal of two dams on the Elwha River began in late 2011 and will restore sediment processes in the near coastal environment adjacent to the river\u27s mouth. Since 2005, we have been collecting data on intertidal/sub-tidal fish communities near the mouth of the River where we expect sediment changes to occur. We have also sampled in reference areas. Samples were collected by beach seining in the spring and summer. Our primary objective has been to determine if attributes of the nearshore fish community (notably species assemblage structure and size distribution) changed in response to sediment restoration. Potential shifts in fish assemblage structure and size distribution of ecologically important species such as forage fish and juvenile salmon are of particular interest because sediment changes will likely be significant in these intertidal and sub-tidal habitats. Trends in species richness and abundance were consistent prior to and following dam removal (2012 is thus far the only year where we have post dam removal information) with reference areas generally possessing more species and a greater overall abundance of fish than treatment areas. Forage fish were the numerically dominate species group in all areas. Using multivariate analysis, we found considerable overlap in fish community composition between years but there was some separation in fish assemblage structure between the different areas prior to dam removal. Regional differences were primarily a result of several forage fish species (notably Pacific sandlance, and surf smelt) and juvenile salmonid species (notably chum salmon). There were also seasonal differences in all regions with salmonids and forage fish the dominate fish in the spring and flatfish, sculpins, perch, and greenlings the primary species occurring in summer. Inclusion of post-dam removal data from 2012 did not significantly change these observed patterns. We plan to continue monitoring in the future. However, our ability to detect responses of fish communities to sediment changes will ultimately depend on both biotic factors (such as species and life stages being considered) and abiotic factors, such as when sediment reaches the coastal environment; the quantity, composition and distribution of the material that reaches the Salish Sea; and how long it takes material to distribute from the river’s mouth

Physical attributes of nearshore waters across greater Puget Sound, with an emphasis on dissolved oxygen and pH

The pelagic zone is a major part of the Puget Sound ecosystem that is sensitive to human influences, yet our understanding of relationships among its abiotic features, water quality, biota, and anthropogenic influences in spatial and temporal context is limited. To characterize the pelagic zone in greater detail, we conducted a multi-trophic level assessment that measured over 20 potential indicators of pelagic ecosystem health at 79 sites in six oceanographic basins of Puget Sound from April to October 2011. Among the many strong spatiotemporal patterns observed were basin and seasonal differences in temperature, salinity, and turbidity linked to freshwater influences; and inorganic nutrient concentrations. DO concentrations also followed distinct seasonal patterns within oceanographic basins. Seasonally, the monthly percentage of sites with DO concentrations below the threshold for biological stress of 5 mg L-1 increased from 0% in April to 45% in October. Spatially, DO concentrations below 5 mg L-1 were recorded at sites within all basins with the exception of the Central basin. By October, the proportion of sites with biologically stressful DO concentrations was highest among sites in Rosario (100%), Hood Canal (77%), and Whidbey (75%) basins. A persistent significant positive correlation between DO and pH was observed across Puget Sound. Both the strength (R2) and magnitude (slope) of the relationship increased with depth. This linkage was also observed in independently collected water column profiles by the Washington State Department of Ecology (WDOE) in 2011 over the same geographic extent. Furthermore, a 22-year long WDOE dataset (1990-2011) indicates that the relationship between DO and pH may be a persistent predictable feature in Puget Sound with biological implications, given that biological stress associated with low DO is likely to be accompanied by low pH stress