A world without farmers? Food production, inclusive development and ecology: Historical Evidences for a New Deal

This paper questions the perspective of a "world without agriculture" which underpins the economic paradigm of "structural transformation" and "modern growth". It does so by recomposing worldwide land and labour productivity trends in caloric terms from 1961 to 2007 and by providing an heuristic model showing that the "Lewis Path" to prosperity is only one out of four possible pathways. It shows that more than half of the world population is rather embarked in a "Lewis Trap" where farmers are increasingly numerous and relatively poorer. It highlights how land scarcity and insufficient job opportunities outside agriculture prevent them to increase their labour productivity and incomes with motorized machineries. The emerging paradigm of "ecological intensification" might contribute to overcome the current deadlocks by redirecting worldwide R&D towards small-scale knowledge-intensive and context-specific agricultures overlapping the manufacture and service sectors. (Résumé d'auteur

A World without Farmers ? The Lewis Path Revisited

This paper questions the Lewis Path perspective of a "world without agriculture" which underpins the "structural transformation" paradigm of "modern growth." It shows that the Lewis Path is only one of four potential structural paths, and that half of the world's population is spiralling into a "Lewis Trap" with more farmers and an increasing income gap between them and other workers. After showing how land constraints and the productivity dynamics outside agriculture might prevent this population from switching to a Lewis Path, it delineates the condition of an alternative path that would not transfer the disparity problem to cities.Cet article interroge le paradigme de " transformation structurelle " et de " croissance moderne " qui conduit in fine à un " monde sans agriculture ". Il montre d'abord que ce " chemin de Lewis " (Lewis Path) n'est qu'une voie parmi quatre possibles, et que seuls les pays industrialisés ou en transition l'ont suivi durant les dernières décennies. La moitié de la population mondiale est plutôt embarquée dans une direction diamétralement opposée (Lewis Trap) où la population active agricole croît ainsi que son écart de revenu avec les autres travailleurs. En recomposant les productivités partielles de la terre et du travail en calories de 1961 à 2007, l'article montre ensuite comment la contrainte en terre interdit à la plupart des actifs agricoles d'augmenter la productivité de leur travail par la moto-mécanisation à grande échelle. Enfin, des simulations numériques projetant l'Inde en 2050 montrent quels facteurs extérieurs à l'agriculture barrent la route de Lewis à ce pays et d'autres. L'article introduit et discute alors un autre paradigme de développement, celui d'une intensification écologique hautement productive à petite échelle, intensive en travail comme en savoirs génériques et locaux, insérée dans le secteur manufacturier comme dans celui des services

Towards anode with low indium content as effective anode in organic solar cells

In2O3 thin films (100 nm thick) have been deposited by reactive evaporation of indium, in an oxygen partial atmosphere. Conductive (σ = 3.5×103 S/cm) and transparent films are obtained using the following experimental conditions: oxygen partial pressure = 1×10−1 Pa, substrate temperature = 300 ◦C and deposition rate = 0.02 nm/s. Layers of this In2O3 thick of 5 nm have been introduced in AZO/In2O3 and FTO/In2O3 multilayer anode structures. The performances of organic photovoltaic cells, based on the couple CuPc/C60, are studied using the anode as parameter. In addition to these bilayers, other structures have been used as anode: AZO, FTO, AZO/In2O3/MoO3, FTO/In2O3/MoO3 and FTO/MoO3. It is shown that the use of the In2O3 film in the bilayer structures improves significantly the cell performances. However the open circuit voltage is quite small while better efficiencies are achieved when MoO3 is present. These results are discussed in the light of surface roughness and surface work function of the different anodes

Huit objets de cuivre et de bronze du piémont pyrénéen oriental : analyse croisée typologique et métallique

Cet article porte sur huit pièces à base de cuivre – deux haches plates et six poignards – provenant de la zone sous-pyrénéenne orientale (Corbières, Haute Vallée de l’Aude, Pays d’OImes), dans les départements de l’Aude et de l’Ariège de l’Est (région de Lavelanet). Elles sont décrites et replacées dans leur contexte typochronologique, alors que les aspects technoéconomiques sont envisagés via la composition métallique (composition élémentaire et rapports isotopiques du plomb). Cinq objets en cuivre – deux haches et trois poignards – sont attribués au Chalcolithique. L’une des haches se rapproche des types nord-ibériques et son importation depuis cette région est suggérée par les analyses métalliques qui placent l’origine du métal dans les Monts Cantabriques. Les trois poignards restants en bronze sont plus tardifs (âge du Bronze et époque historique ?) et de configurations métalliques variées, ce qui laisse envisager un approvisionnement multiple.This contribution presents eight copper-based artefacts – two flat axes and six daggers – originating from the eastern Subpyrenean Zone (Corbières, Haute Vallée de l’Aude, Pays d’OImes), in the departments of Aude and Ariège (area of Lavelanet). They are described and their typochronological context is discussed. The metallicanalyses (trace elements and lead isotopes) reveal the techno-economic aspects. Five artefacts made of copper – two axes and three daggers – are attributed to the Chalcolithic. One axe is of North Iberian type and metallic analyses support this origin, suggesting that the metal could come from the Cantabrian Mountains. The three remaining daggers are made of bronze and are attributed to the Bronze Age and, possibly, the Historic Period. The metallic compositions are diverse and suggest a complex material supply chain