Effective skill refinement: Focusing on process to ensure outcome

In contrast to the abundance of motor skill acquisition and performance research, there is a paucity of work which addresses how athletes with an already learnt and well-established skill may go about making a subtle change, or refinement, to that skill. Accordingly, the purpose of this review paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of current understanding pertaining to such practice. Specifically, this review addresses deliberately initiated refinements to closed and self-paced skills (e.g., javelin throwing, golf swing and horizontal jumps). In doing so, focus is directed to three fundamental considerations within applied coaching practice and future research endeavours; the intended outcomes, process and evaluative measures of skill refinement. Conclusions suggest that skill refinement is not the same as skill acquisition or performing already learnt skills with high-levels of automaticity. Due to the complexity of challenge faced, refinements are best addressed as an interdisciplinary solution, with objective measures informing coach decision making

The fourth dimension: A motoric perspective on the anxiety–performance relationship

This article focuses on raising concern that anxiety–performance relationship theory has insufficiently catered for motoric issues during, primarily, closed and self-paced skill execution (e.g., long jump and javelin throw). Following a review of current theory, we address the under-consideration of motoric issues by extending the three-dimensional model put forward by Cheng, Hardy, and Markland (2009) (‘Toward a three-dimensional conceptualization of performance anxiety: Rationale and initial measurement development, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 271–278). This fourth dimension, termed skill establishment, comprises the level and consistency of movement automaticity together with a performer's confidence in this specific process, as providing a degree of robustness against negative anxiety effects. To exemplify this motoric influence, we then offer insight regarding current theories’ misrepresentation that a self-focus of attention toward an already well-learned skill always leads to a negative performance effect. In doing so, we draw upon applied literature to distinguish between positive and negative self-foci and suggest that on what and how a performer directs their attention is crucial to the interaction with skill establishment and, therefore, performance. Finally, implications for skill acquisition research are provided. Accordingly, we suggest a positive potential flow from applied/translational to fundamental/theory-generating research in sport which can serve to freshen and usefully redirect investigation into this long-considered but still insufficiently understood concept

Tracking technical refinement in elite performers: The good, the better, and the ugly

This study extends coaching research examining the practical implementation of technical refinement in elite-level golfers. In doing so, we provide an initial check of precepts pertaining to the Five-A Model and, examine the dynamics between coaching, psychomotor, biomechanical and psychological inputs to the process. Three case studies of golfers attempting refinements to their already well-established techniques are reported. Kinematic data were supplemented with intra-individual movement variability and self-perceptions of mental effort as measures of tracking behaviour and motor control. Results showed different levels of success in refining technique and subsequent ability to return to executing under largely subconscious control. In one case, the technique was refined as intended but without consistent reduction of conscious attention, in another, both were successfully apparent, whereas in the third case neither was achieved. Implications of these studies are discussed with reference to the process’ interdisciplinary nature and importance of the initial and final stages

Systems for technical refinement in experienced performers: The case from expert-level golf

This paper provides an overview of current golf coaching practices employed with experts, when attempting to make changes to (i.e., refine) a player’s existing technique. In the first of two studies, European Tour golfers (n = 5) and coaches (n = 5) were interviewed to establish the prevalence of any systematic processes, and whether facilitation of resistance to competitive pressure (hereafter termed “pressure resistance”) was included. Study 2 employed an online survey, administered to 89 PGA Professionals and amateur golfers (mostly amateurs; n = 83). Overall, results suggested no standardized, systematic, or theoretically considered approach to implementing technical change, with pressure resistance being considered outside of the change process itself; if addressed at all. In conclusion, there is great scope for PGA professionals to increase their coaching efficacy relating to skill refinement; however, this appears most likely to be achieved through a collaborative approach between coach education providers, researchers, and coaches

Letter to the editor concerning the article “Performance of gymnastics skill benefits from an external focus of attention” by Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta & Nieto (2015)

Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta, & Nieto (2015) recently published data in Journal of Sports Sciences to show that an external focus of attention promotes superior performance effects (gymnastics jump height and judged movement form score) when compared to internal or control foci during skill execution without an implement involved. While we do not contest the veracity of findings reported, nor others that have been used to support beneficial effects of an external focus of attention, in this Letter to the Editor we comment on considerable methodological limitations associated with this and previous studies which, we suggest, have resulted in serious theoretical oversights regarding the control of movement and, most crucially from our practitioner perspective, suboptimal recommendations for applied coaching practice. Specifically, we discuss the lack of consideration towards translational research in this area, the problematic nature of attentional focus cues employed, interpretation of findings in relation to other applied recommendations and coherence with mechanistic underpinning and finally, the representative nature of task involved. In summary, while (laboratory) research evidence may appear to be conclusive, we suggest that focus of attention effects are in need of more ecologically valid and rigorous testing and consideration of current coaching practices if it is to optimally serve the applied sporting domain that it purportedly aims to

“To hit, or not to hit?” Examining the similarity between practice and real swings in golf

Practice swings are commonly employed among golfers, presumably based on the tacit assumption that they share common psychomotor processes with real swings; however, this has not been verified by empirical research. Therefore, this study aimed to examine whether practice swings shared equivalent levels of control to real golf swings, when attempting the same target behavior. Three PGA Professional golf coaches and six amateurs (mean handicap = 2.7, SD = 2.2) each executed 20 swings under two quasirandom conditions; 10 real swings when striking a ball and 10 practice swings without. Underpinned by the theoretical suggestions of the UnControlled Manifold (UCM) approach (Scholz & Schöner, 1999), motor control was assessed using intraindividual movement variability. Results showed the level of equivalence to be inconsistent on both an inter and intraindividual basis. Coaches should, therefore, recognize that practice swings do not share the same effect for every golfer. Optimal coaching needs to consider individual responses before committing to specific training designs if counterproductive training is to be avoided

Initiating technical refinements in high-level golfers: Evidence for contradictory procedures

When developing motor skills there are several outcomes available to an athlete depending on their skill status and needs. Whereas the skill acquisition and performance literature is abundant, an under-researched outcome relates to the refinement of already acquired and well-established skills. Contrary to current recommendations for athletes to employ an external focus of attention and a representative practice design, Carson and Collins’ (2011) [Refining and regaining skills in fixation/diversification stage performers: The Five-A Model. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, 146–167. doi:10.1080/1750984x.2011.613682] Five-A Model requires an initial narrowed internal focus on the technical aspect needing refinement: the implication being that environments which limit external sources of information would be beneficial to achieving this task. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to (1) provide a literature-based explanation for why techniques counter to current recommendations may be (temporarily) appropriate within the skill refinement process and (2) provide empirical evidence for such efficacy. Kinematic data and self-perception reports are provided from high level golfers attempting to consciously initiate technical refinements while executing shots onto a driving range and into a close proximity net (i.e. with limited knowledge of results). It was hypothesised that greater control over intended refinements would occur when environmental stimuli were reduced in the most unrepresentative practice condition (i.e. hitting into a net). Results confirmed this, as evidenced by reduced intra-individual movement variability for all participants’ individual refinements, despite little or no difference in mental effort reported. This research offers coaches guidance when working with performers who may find conscious recall difficult during the skill refinement process

A case study of technical change and rehabilitation: Intervention design and interdisciplinary team interaction

The design of effective interventions in sport psychology often requires a subtle blend of techniques, tailored to meet the client’s specific needs. Input from a variety of disciplinary support specialists, working as a team, is also frequently needed. Accordingly, this study investigated an interdisciplinary team approach to the technical change and rehabilitation of an elite weight lifter following injury; necessitating the avoidance of regression when performing under competitive pressure. Multiple coaching approaches were used and complimented by targeting specific mental skills. Kinematic analyses indicated progressive technical, and subsequently permanent, change even after 2 years. Self-report measures of self-efficacy and imagery use were deemed essential in facilitating the change. Finally, a discussion focuses on the intervention’s multifactorial nature, its application within high performance coaching, and how this may advise future research into the refinement of already existing and well-established skills

Working Inside the Black Box: Refinement of Pre-Existing Skills

This thesis aimed to address and inform the gap in current sport psychology/coaching research, knowledge and practice related to the implementation of technical refinement in already learnt, well-established and self-paced skills. This was achieved through a series of studies conducted within golf. Accordingly, Chapter 2 revealed technical refinement as neither systematic nor consistent within and between European Tour players and coaches and high-level amateurs. Building on this need, the systematic Five-A Model was derived from the literature (Chapter 3), targeting outcomes of permanency and pressure resistance. Following, motor control (Chapter 4) and kinematic (Chapter 5) measures, technological methods from which these data could be obtained (Chapter 6) and appropriate training environments and task characteristics (Chapter 7) were determined, aimed at enabling informative tracking of progress through the Five-A Model in applied golf coaching environments. Having developed these ranges of measures and methods, Chapter 8 presented three longitudinal case studies aimed at implementing and tracking progress through stages of the Five-A Model. Results revealed outcomes with different levels of success in facilitating technical refinement, based primarily on psycho-behavioural limitations that were also found in Chapter 2. Therefore, as a final check on measures proposed, Chapter 9 confirmed previous suggestions by tracking six performers making short-term technical refinements within a single training session. Finally, Chapter 10 summarised the findings and implications of this thesis. Particular emphasis was directed towards the impact of psycho-behavioural skills in determining the success when attempting refinements, the further development of informative measures to track progress and inform coaches decision making and the wider implications of this research within clinical and rehabilitation settings