Entomophagy and power

Edible insects are being framed as a panacea for health, resource and climate challenges, and the ‘entomophagy movement’ is growing rapidly. Yet as the insect ‘solution’ is scaled up, there is a greater focus on technical innovation and less on the structural inequalities that govern who produces within, who controls, and who benefits from the edible insect trade. We ask: To what extent is the promotion of ‘entomophagy’ challenging or reproducing power relations in global food systems? Drawing on evidence from academia, industry, and the local insect trade in Southeast Asia we critically investigate the rising interest in insects as food. We conducted a systematic literature review, a systematic company and product review of products available online, and fieldwork in Thailand where the edible insect market is growing. Our analysis suggests that the emerging edible insects movement is – generally but not exclusively – reinforcing the existing power relations that many of its actors suggest it could challenge. We conclude our paper with recommendations for further research to investigate the disparity between the claims and consequences of this ‘quick-fix’ approach to food systems. Beyond relying on solely technical and market-based solutions, we recommend more ‘power-aware’ approaches in academia and business, accountability and transparency in research and trade, more detailed critical research in different contexts, and the inclusion of marginalised actors in the discourse, as means to realise the potential of edible insects in a democratic way. Natural Environment Research CouncilThis is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Wageningen Academic Publishers via http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.001

The mineral composition of five insects as sold for human consumption in Southern Africa

Edible insects have been proposed as an alternative protein source that is economically and  environmentally preferable to livestock, and certain species may be high in nutrients that benefit human health. We present data describing the mineral content of five edible insects as sold in South Africa and Zimbabwe. We report high variation between and within species, and note that these insects contain significant quantities of potentially beneficial, and potentially harmful, micronutrients. Two caterpillars were notably high in Fe and Zn, which are important nutrients for combating iron deficiency anemia. Na content varied both between and within species, suggesting that some sellers add quantities of salt that could be harmful to health. Mn levels were high in edible termites. We concluded that caterpillars can be promoted as nutrient rich foods in southern Africa; that added salt should be limited in commercial products; and that further research is required to determine whether common serving sizes of termites may put consumers in danger of manganese poisoning. Key words: Edible insects, nutrition, mineral composition, micronutrients, Lepidoptera.Abbreviation: DALYs, Disability-adjusted life years; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Mg, magnesium; Al, aluminium; P, phosphorus; S, sulphur; Cu, copper; Fe, iron; Mn, manganese; Zn, zinc; DRI, daily recommended intake

How Abnormal Is the Behaviour of Captive, Zoo-Living Chimpanzees?

Background. Many captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) show a variety of serious behavioural abnormalities, some of which have been considered as possible signs of compromised mental health. The provision of environmental enrichments aimed at reducing the performance of abnormal behaviours is increasing the norm, with the housing of individuals in (semi-)natural social groups thought to be the most successful of these. Only a few quantitative studies of abnormal behaviour have been conducted, however, particularly for the captive population held in zoological collections. Consequently, a clear picture of the level of abnormal behaviour in zoo-living chimpanzees is lacking. Methods. We present preliminary findings from a detailed observational study of the behaviour of 40 socially-housed zoo-living chimpanzees from six collections in the United States of America and the United Kingdom. We determined the prevalence, diversity, frequency, and duration of abnormal behaviour from 1200 hours of continuous behavioural data collected by focal animal sampling. Results, conclusion, and significance. Our overall finding was that abnormal behaviour was present in all sampled individuals across six independent groups of zoo-living chimpanzees, despite the differences between these groups in size, composition, housing, etc. We found substantial variation between individuals in the frequency and duration of abnormal behaviour, but all individuals engaged in at least some abnormal behaviour and variation across individuals could not be explained by sex, age, rearing history or background (defined as prior housing conditions). Our data support a conclusion that, while most behaviour of zoo-living chimpanzees is ‘normal’ in that it is typical of their wild counterparts, abnormal behaviour is endemic in this population despite enrichment efforts. We suggest there is an urgent need to understand how the chimpanzee mind copes with captivity, an issue with both scientific and welfare implications

The contribution of ‘chitoumou’, the edible caterpillar Cirina butyrospermi, to the food security of smallholder farmers in southwestern Burkina Faso

Edible insects have been advocated as a means to combat food insecurity, which is prevalent in West Africa. In this study we look at the contribution of the shea caterpillar Cirina butyrospermi, colloquially known as ‘chitoumou’, to the food security of smallholder households in rural southwestern Burkina Faso. We used a mixed methods approach to understand the relationship between caterpillar collection, consumption, and sale by smallholder households, and their seasonal food security status. We found that caterpillars are an important source of food and income for households, significantly increasing the household consumption of animal protein and, with shea nuts, representing the main income source for the majority of women. We also found that food security is higher during caterpillar season, and that household-level food security during this season can be predicted by the amount of caterpillars collected, consumed and sold. However, this relationship holds only during the caterpillar season, suggesting that the positive impact of caterpillars on food security is temporally limited. We conclude that the shea caterpillar is an example of an edible insect that is crucial for seasonal food security in a widespread agricultural system

Edible Insects

In the tropics more than 2000 insect species are eaten. Most are only seasonally available, and the local population uses a number of techniques to harvest them. In the western world, insects are not known as food. However, alternative protein sources are needed as the agricultural land available in the world is not enough to satisfy the growing demand of meat. Among those sources are algae, mycoproteins, cultured meat, plant proteins, and insects. The nutritional value of insects is comparable to meat products. The environmental impact from rearing insects is much less than livestock production: insects emit less greenhouse gases and need much less land and water. When insects are promoted as food, harvesting more from nature is not an option and they need to be farmed as mini-livestock. The interest in the western world to use insects as food is growing. This is exemplified by the exponential growth of the number of publications as well as the number of start-up companies. Major hurdles in western countries are the creation of a legislative framework, automation to reduce the cost price, and the development of strategies to convince consumers. Consumer strategies are: an affordable price, developing tasty products, incorporating insect ingredients in familiar products and to give consumer a taste experience. Producing insects as food may become a new agricultural sector

How to Measure Consumers Acceptance Towards Edible Insects? – A Scoping Review About Methodological Approaches

In recent years there has been a growing number of studies analysing consumer acceptance, preferences, choices and willingness to pay for insects and insect-based products as food. The aim of this chapter is to draw conclusions from existing literature published in scientific journals about the overall state of research activity on consumer attitude and behaviour towards entomophagy. A scoping review was conducted by searching electronic databases for relevant articles using a determined key-terms search strategy. The starting dataset (n = 1366) was screened and analysed by the authors and a total of 102 articles were included in the review. Findings highlight how a large number of researchers worldwide have investigated the potential drivers and benefits motivating consumers to accept insect and insect-based products as food as well as the main barriers that prevent individuals from consuming them. The main themes that emerged are linked to: (1) the type of insect species and studies performing sensory tasting sessions, specifically those comparing specific species types (e.g. crickets, fried grasshoppers) to general/vague names (i.e. willingness to consume insects or insect-based product); (2) psycho-social and attitudinal variables like intention to eat, willingness to try, familiarity, food neophobia, emotional experiences, willingness to eat and overall entomophagy acceptance; (3) information treatment about entomophagy (e.g. benefits/risks of eating insects); (4) socio-demographic variables like differences in culture/country of origin (i.e. cross-country studies), gender, age and others. A summary of the included records analysed as well as recommendations for future studies on how to develop research on consumer behaviour towards edible insect as food are explored