Evolution of the Sweetness Receptor in Primates. I. Why Does Alitame Taste Sweet in all Prosimians and Simians, and Aspartame only in Old World Simians?

In the order Primates the responses to sucrose, alitame and aspartame were ascertained. All primates tested to date like sucrose and prefer this sweet substance to tap water. The artificial dipeptide aspartame was found to be not sweet in Prosimii and Platyrrhini (New World monkeys). Only the Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys) and Hominoidea (apes and humans) show the same response to aspartame and to sucrose. In contrast, all primates tested so far prefer alitame, another artificial dipeptide sweetener, which is structurally closely related to aspartame. This phylogenetic difference is consistent with the existence in catarrhine primates of a sweetness receptor containing two differently located hydrophobic recognition sites, one for the hydrophobic binding site of alitame, the other for the hydrophobic binding site of aspartame. On the basis of these results, it is suggested that the alitame-related hydrophobic recognition site, which is found in the sweetness receptor of all primates, could be a requisite for the interaction of the receptor with sucrose, while the aspartame-related hydrophobic recognition site, which is found exclusively in the sweetness receptor of Old World simians, could have been a crucial factor in the improvement in detection or selection of sucrose in foods, so favouring the mental development of these simians and maybe the emergence of humans. Chem. Senses 20: 573-584, 199

Evolution of the Sweetness Receptor in Primates. II. Gustatory Responses of Non-human Primates to Nine Compounds Known to be Sweet in Man

The gustatory responses of nine compounds, namely glycine, D-phenylalanine, D-tryptophan, cyanosuosan, magapame, sucrononate, campame, cyclamate and superaspartame, all known as sweet in man, were studied in 41 species or subspecies of non-human primates, selected among Prosimii (Lemuridae and Lorisidae), Platyrrhini (Callitrichidae and Cebidae) and Catarrhini (Cercopithecidae, Hylobatidae and Pongidae). The first six compounds are generally sweet to all primates, which implies that they interact with the primate sweetness receptors essentially through constant recognition sites. Campame is sweet only to Cebidae and Catarrhini, cyclamate only to Catarrhini, superaspartame principally to Callitrichidae and Catarrhini, which implies that all these compounds interact with the receptors partly through variable recognition sites. From the present work, from other previous results (where notably it was observed that alitame is sweet to all primates, ampame only to Prosimii and Catarrhini, and aspartame only to Catarrhini), and from the multipoint attachment (MPA) theory of sweetness reception (as elaborated by Nofre and Tinti from a detailed study of structure-activity relationships of various sweeteners in man), it is inferred that the primate sweetness receptors are very likely made up of eight recognition sites, of which the first, second, third, fourth, seventh and eighth are constant, and the fifth and sixth variable. From these results and from the MPA theory, it is also inferred that the recognition sites of the primate sweetness receptors could be: Asp-1 or Glu-1, Lys-2, Asp-3 or Glu-3, Thr-4, X-5, X-6, Thr-7, Ser-8, where the variable recognition sites X-5 and X-6 would be: Ala-5 and Ala-6 for Callitrichidae, Ser-5 and Ala-6 for Cebidae, Ala-5 and Thr-6 for Prosimii, and Thr-5 and Thr-6 for Catarrhini. By using Tupaiidae (tree shrews) as a reference outgroup and by means of other structural and functional molecular considerations, it appears that Callitrichidae have retained the most primitive receptor among the four types of primate receptors. The possible taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of these findings are discussed. Chem. Senses 21: 747-762, 199

PARÁSITOS HELMINTOS EN Boa constrictor, Epicrates cenchria y Corallus caninus (Ophidia: Boidae) CRIADAS EN CAUTIVERIO

Los boideos pertenecen a la familia Boidae, cuyos representantes más conocidos son las boas y los pitones. Estos reptiles no son venenosos, pero sí peligrosos por la cantidad de dientes que poseen y por su hábito constrictor. Las especies Boa constrictor (“Boa” o “Mantona”), Epicrates cenchria (“Mantona roja”o “Arco iris”) y Corallus caninus (“Boa verde” o “Boa esmeralda”) se crían en cautiverio con fines comerciales, orientadas a un mercado para mascotas. La zoocría de boideos es una actividad poco desarrollada en el país por lo que se conoce poco acerca de su estado sanitario; aunque los parásitos, principalmente intestinales, son reportados como casuística de mortalidad y morbilidad.Fecal samples for the identification of helminthes were collected from three species of snakes (Boa contrictor “boa” or “mantona”, Epicrates cenchria “mantona roja” or “arco iris”, Corallus caninus “boa verde” or “boa esmeralda”) reared in captivity. The identified parasites, either through eggs or larva were: Kalicephalus sp., Ophiotaenia sp., Rhabdias sp., Ophidascaris sp., and Hymenolepis diminuta. The results indicated that 79% of adult female Boa constrictor and 46% of their offspring, 71% of E. cenchria and 70% of C. caninus were positive, either to single or multiple infections. These data showed that boas reared in captivity were highly parasitized with intestinal and pulmonary helminthes

Escherichia coli Enteropatógena en Crías de Primate Aotus (Aotidae) con Diarrea en Cautiverio

Diarrhea is the most common sign of gastrointestinal disease in young primates kept in captivity. The study aimed to isolate and identify bacterial species present in young Aotus with diarrhoea. The animals were reared in captivity for experimental purposes. Faecal samples were collected using rectal swabs from 78 monkeys of 1 to 7 months old of A. nancymae (n=65) and A. vociferans (n=13) with diarrhoea, and 29 apparently healthy monkeys of 1 month old of A. nancymae (n=21) and A. vociferans (n=8) in the period 2002 to 2005. In the healthy group was most commonly identified E. coli, followed by Proteus vulgaris, P. mirabilis and Citrobacter freundii. A similar result was obtained in the group with diarrhea, plus Klebsiella oxytoca and Enterobacter aerogenes. Serotypes of enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) identified in the group with diarrhea were seven: O158, O142, O86, O125, O126, O55, and O111. The results showed that young alpacas with diarrhea have bacteria corresponding to the normal intestinal flora, and the primary isolated bacterium was E. coli.La diarrea es el signo más frecuente de enfermedad gastrointestinal en crías de primates mantenidas en cautiverio. El estudio tuvo como objetivo aislar e identificar especies bacterianas presentes en crías de Aotus con diarrea que son criadas en cautiverio con fines experimentales. Se tomaron muestras de heces mediante hisopado rectal a 78 ejemplares de 1 a 7 meses de edad de A. nancymae (n=65) y A. vociferans (n=13) con diarrea y a 29 ejemplares de 1 mes de edad, aparentemente sanos de A. nancymae (n=21) y A. vociferans (n=8), durante el periodo de 2002 a 2005. En el grupo control se identificó principalmente E. coli, además de Proteus vulgaris, P. mirabilis y Citrobacter freundii. Resultado similar fue registrado en el grupo con diarrea, además de Klebsiella oxitoca y Enterobacter aerogenes. Los serotipos de E. coli enteropatógena (EPEC) identificados en el grupo con diarrea fueron siete: O158, O142, O86, O125, O126, O55 y O111. Los resultados indican que las crías con diarrea tienen bacterias que corresponden a la flora intestinal normal, siendo E. coli la de mayor frecuencia

PERFIL BIOQUÍMICO SANGUÍNEO HEPÁTICO Y RENAL EN EL SAJINO (Tayassu tajacu) CRIADO EN CAUTIVERIO EN LA AMAZONÍA PERUANA

The objective of this study was to establish reference serum values for bilirrubin (total and direct), alanine amino transferase (ALT), aspartate amino transferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, total protein, albumin, urea, and creatinine in healthy collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) kept under captivity in the Amazonian jungle of Peru (Loreto, Iquitos). A total of 28 adult animals (14 males and 14 females) were used. Blood samples (7 ml) were collected from the safen vein. Serum values were: Total bilirrubin: 0.7 ± 0.2 mg/dl; direct bilirrubin: 0.2 ± 0.1 mg/dl; ALT: 26.5 ± 9.1 UI/l; AST: 15.9 ± 8.4 UI/l; alkaline phosphatase: 27.5 ± 15.5 UI/l; cholesterol: 94.4 ± 20.2 mg/dl; total protein: 8.5 ± 1.1 g/dl; albumin: 4.4 ± 0.5 g/dl; urea: 58.1 ± 11.1 mg/dl; and creatinine: 2.2 ± 0.5 mg/dl. It was concluded that serum values were similar to other results reported in the literature and without statistical differences due to sex.The objective of this study was to establish reference serum values for bilirrubin (total and direct), alanine amino transferase (ALT), aspartate amino transferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, total protein, albumin, urea, and creatinine in healthy collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) kept under captivity in the Amazonian jungle of Peru (Loreto, Iquitos). A total of 28 adult animals (14 males and 14 females) were used. Blood samples (7 ml) were collected from the safen vein. Serum values were: Total bilirrubin: 0.7 ± 0.2 mg/dl; direct bilirrubin: 0.2 ± 0.1 mg/dl; ALT: 26.5 ± 9.1 UI/l; AST: 15.9 ± 8.4 UI/l; alkaline phosphatase: 27.5 ± 15.5 UI/l; cholesterol: 94.4 ± 20.2 mg/dl; total protein: 8.5 ± 1.1 g/dl; albumin: 4.4 ± 0.5 g/dl; urea: 58.1 ± 11.1 mg/dl; and creatinine: 2.2 ± 0.5 mg/dl. It was concluded that serum values were similar to other results reported in the literature and without statistical differences due to sex

HEMATOLOGICALVALUES OF THE YELLOW-FOOTEDTORTOISE (GEOCHELONE DENTICULATA) RAISED IN CAPTIVITY

El estudio tuvo por objetivo obtener valores hematológicos de referencia de la tortuga motelo (Geochelone denticulata). Se utilizaron 44 individuos mantenidos en cautiverio en la ciudad de Iquitos-Perú. Se colectó la sangre por punción de la vena subcarapacial y se determinó recuento de glóbulos rojos (RGR), recuento de glóbulos blancos (RGB), hematocrito (Ht), hemoglobina (Hb), recuento diferencial de leucocitos e índices eritrocíticos. La temperatura cloacal y el peso corporal se emplearon como referencia del estado de salud. Los valores promedio fueron: RGR 0.44 x 106μL, RGB 7.82 x 103μL, Ht 20.3%, Hb 7.0 g/dl, VCM 502.7 fl, HCM 171.4 pg, CHCM 34.1 g/dl. El recuento diferencial de leucocitos fue: Heterófilos 55.6%, Linfocitos 25.5%, Eosinófilos 15.8%, Basófilos 1.5%, Monocitos 0.4%, Azurófilos 1.2%. Los resultados coinciden con los intervalos de referencia documentados para la especie.The objective of the study was to obtain hematological referential values forGeochelone denticulata tortoise. Blood samples of 44 tortoises, maintained in captivityin Iquitos city, Peru, were collected by puncture of the subcarapacial vein. Bloodparameters under evaluation were red blood cell number (RBC), white blood cell number(WBC), hematocrit (Ht), hemoglobin (Hb), differential leukocyte counts and erythrocyteindexes. Cloacal temperature and body weight were used as a reference for health status.The average values were: RBC 0.44 x 106mL, WBC 7.82 x 103mL, Ht 20.3%, Hb 7.0 g/dl,MCV 502.7 fl, MCH 171.4 pg, MCHC 34.1 g/dl. Leukocyte differential counts were:Heterophils 55.6%, Lymphocytes 25.5%, Eosinophils 15.8%, Basophils 1.5%, Monocytes0.4%, Azurophils 1.2%. Results were similar to values reported for the species

PRESENCE OF TRYPANOSOMA SP. IN COLLARED PECCARIES (TAYASSU TAJACU) REARED IN CAPTIVITY IN THE TROPICS OF PERU

El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar la presencia de Trypanosoma sp. en sajinos en cautiverio de las zonas de Iquitos y Moyobamba. Se colectó muestras de sangre de 40 sajinos procedentes de tres zoocriaderos con edades entre 3 meses y 2 años. Las muestras se procesaron con las técnicas de microcapilar o técnica de Woo y del frotis sanguíneo delgado. No se halló la presencia de Trypanosoma sp. en las muestras examinadas, y, posiblemente, la baja sensibilidad de las técnicas afectó los resultados. La técnica de evaluación de riesgo por simulación Monte Carlo (programa @Risk) indicó que el 95% de las observaciones analizadas se encontraron en un intervalo de 0.006 a 0.854% y que la probabilidad de encontrar la infección real en sajinos provenientes de Iquitos y Moyobamba se encuentra en un rango promedio de infección de 0.02%.The objective of the present study was to determine the presence of Trypanosoma sp. in collared peccaries reared in captivity in Iquitos and Moyobamba area. Blood samples were collected from 40 animals from 3 months to 2 years of age. Samples were processed by the microcapillary or Woo technique and the blood smear. None of the samples resulted positive to Trypanosoma sp., and probably the low sensitivity of the techniques affected the results. The Monte Carlo risk analysis (@Risk) indicated that the probability to obtain an infected animal in the Moyobamba and Iquitos area was 0.02% and that 95% of the samples were within an interval of 0.006 a 0.854%

DESCRIPCIÓN ANATOMOPATOLÓGICA DE LESIONES POR HELMINTOS GASTROINTESTINALES EN TORTUGAS MOTELO (Chelonoidis denticulata)

The present aimed to identify and describe lesions caused by helminths in motelo tortoises(Chelonoidis denticulata). Forty gastrointestinal tracts were collected at Belen market inIquitos, Peru where this species is sold for meat consumption. The macroscopic analysisshowed that 42.5, 70.0, and 100% of the stomachs, small intestine and large intestinerespectively were parasitizedor affected by pathological –possibly due to parasites–changes like nodules, blackish coloration areas, ulcers, perforations, thickening,congestion and hemorrhagic areas. Parasites of 11 species were collected: Labidurisgulosa, Labiduris zschokkei, Labiduris irineuta, Atractis marquezi, Klossinemellatravassosi, Sauricola sauricola, Chapiniella variabilis, Angusticaecum holopterumand Ophidascaris arndti (Nematoda), and Halltrema avitellina and Helicotrema spirale(Trematoda). Histologically, an invasion of the four gastrointestinal layers by parasiticstructures compatible with H. avitellina (and its eggs), C. variabilis, S. sauricola and unundetermined species of atractideus was observed mostly surrounded by inflammatoryexudates formed by eosinophiles, giant cells, lymphocytes and connective tissue. Also,the presence of eosinophilic infiltrate in the mucosa was found as a response to thecontact with O. arndti and H. spirale. The results showed that all animals presentedparasitic lesions in the large intestine, most of them severe; whereas lesions in stomachand small intestine were mainly moderate and mild.El trabajo tuvo por objetivo identificar y describir las lesiones ocasionadas por helmintos en tortugas motelo (Chelonoidis denticulata). Se colectaron 40 tractos gastrointestinales de tortugas en el mercado de Belén, Iquitos, Perú, donde esta especie es comercializada como carne de consumo. El análisis macroscópico mostró que el 42.5, 70.0 y 100% de los estómagos, intestino delgado e intestino grueso, respectivamente, se encontraban parasitados o presentaban cambios patológicos de posible origen parasitario como nódulos, áreas de coloración negruzca, úlceras, perforaciones, engrosamiento, congestión y focos hemorrágicos. Se identificaron 11 especies de helmintos: Labiduris gulosa, Labiduris zschokkei, Labiduris irineuta, Atractismarquezi, Klossinemella travassosi, Sauricola sauricola, Chapiniella variabilis, Angusticaecum holopterum y Ophidascaris arndti (Nematoda), y Halltrema avitellinay Helicotrema spirale (Trematoda). Histológicamente, se evidenció la invasión de las cuatro túnicas gastrointestinales por estructuras parasitarias compatibles con H.avitellina (y sus huevos), C. variabilis, S. sauricola y una especie no determinada de atractídeo, rodeadas principalmente por exudados inflamatorios compuestos de eosinófilos, células gigantes, linfocitos y tejido conjuntivo. Asimismo, se observó la presencia de infiltrado eosinofílico en la mucosa como respuesta al contacto con O.arndti y H. spirale. Los resultados indican que todos los individuos presentaron lesiones parasitarias en intestino grueso, siendo la mayoría de grado severo, mientras que las lesiones en estómago e intestino delgado fueron mayormente de grado moderado y leve

Assessing learning and memory in pigs

In recent years, there has been a surge of interest in (mini) pigs (Sus scrofa) as species for cognitive research. A major reason for this is their physiological and anatomical similarity with humans. For example, pigs possess a well-developed, large brain. Assessment of the learning and memory functions of pigs is not only relevant to human research but also to animal welfare, given the nature of current farming practices and the demands they make on animal health and behavior. In this article, we review studies of pig cognition, focusing on the underlying processes and mechanisms, with a view to identifying. Our goal is to aid the selection of appropriate cognitive tasks for research into pig cognition. To this end, we formulated several basic criteria for pig cognition tests and then applied these criteria and knowledge about pig-specific sensorimotor abilities and behavior to evaluate the merits, drawbacks, and limitations of the different types of tests used to date. While behavioral studies using (mini) pigs have shown that this species can perform learning and memory tasks, and much has been learned about pig cognition, results have not been replicated or proven replicable because of the lack of validated, translational behavioral paradigms that are specially suited to tap specific aspects of pig cognition. We identified several promising types of tasks for use in studies of pig cognition, such as versatile spatial free-choice type tasks that allow the simultaneous measurement of several behavioral domains. The use of appropriate tasks will facilitate the collection of reliable and valid data on pig cognition