Issues in SACCOS Development in Kenya and Tanzania: The Historical and Development Perspectives

SACCOS (Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies) as of now are predominant form of external financing for small and micro enterprises in most of the developing counties (Kenya and Tanzania inclusive). Contemporary studies show that SACCOS’ role towards developing these small enterprises is increasing rapidly.From this insight, this paper discusses the origin, characteristics and contribution of SACCOS to the economic development. Considering their contributions; this paper also unveils the constraints to SACCOS’ development in these countries. In Kenya, SACCOS have been noted to contribute over 45% GDP, and it is estimated that at least one out of every two Kenyans directly or indirectly derives his /her livelihood from these kinds of cooperative movements. On the other hand, in Tanzania cooperatives (including SACCOS) through financing of SMEs contributes about 40% to the country’s GDP and employs 94.7% of school leavers every year, majority of these SMEs in rural areas depends on co-operative movements for external financing. The rapid development of SACCOS in both countries has been caused by growth of the private sector; which hugely demands external financial resources.  SACCOS in the two countries have more or less similar constraints including: lack of well-trained officials and proper administrative framework, bureaucracy, inability to raise vast financial resources and many others. This paper recommends policy makers and governments to come-up with policies and strategies that will support the growth of SACCOS which looks to be a pertinent alternative solution for financing micro and small businesses. Key words:  SACCOS’ development, Kenya, Tanzani

Specializing in Entrepreneurship Field of Study on Entrepreneurial Intentions of University Students

Specializing in a certain field of study at university level is believed to have a direct effect to the specific graduates under consideration. It is trusted to create and bring competent professionals in the respective fields. Skepticism has always emerged on the relevance of specializing in entrepreneurship field of study; scholars and academicians question whether it will create future and competent entrepreneurs.  In this regard, this study evaluated the impact of specializing in entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intentions of university students. This was done by comparing students from specialization and non-specialization cohorts. This was achieved by comparing the level of enterprising tendency; intentions; and choice of intended careers of the two cohorts. A comparative-explanatory case study design was used by distributing the questionnaires to Marketing and Entrepreneurship students as (non-specialization and specialization cohorts respectively). Data from 62 respondents (i.e. response rate of 71%) were obtained. Mean, regression, independent sample tests and, ANOVA techniques were applied for data analysis.  The results of the study show that students from the specialization cohort have a significant higher enterprising tendency and perceived entrepreneurial intentions than their counterparts. Keywords: Entrepreneurship Education, Entrepreneurial intentions, Specialization, Tanzania

Parking Challenges Facing Urban Cities in Tanzania: Evidence from Dar es Salaam City

This paper examines the parking challenges in urban cities of Tanzania with a view to provide effective suggestions to overcome the challenges. It is an explicit reality that the effectiveness of the parking policies is compromised with the perceived tension of three objectives which are governed by parking including; regeneration, restraint and revenue. This study suggests that municipalities and council authorities have an obligation to provide education to people pertaining the cost of driving within the city and encourage non-motorized system to road users such as walking, cycling etc.; to ensure that any additional parking revenues are invested in developing the infrastructures; provide reliable information to inform people where they are allowed to park; to employ professionalism particularly parking attendants, applying friendly technology to charge parked cars and the cost of doing business within the city center should be elaborated to population. Finally, this study suggests that in order to reduce traffic congestions and delays at road intersections or junctions in the city such as on-street parking should be discouraged and adequate off-street parking facilities should be provided. Keywords: parking, challenges, transport, Tanzani

Determinants of Relevancy of Micro Financial Services to SMEs and Clients’ Responsiveness in Tanzania: A Stakeholders Approach

The overall objective of the study was to investigate factors for the relevancy of micro financial services to Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Tanzania. For this purpose five main factors were considered to have influence on the relevancy of Micro financial services to Small and medium enterprises have been studied using correlation coefficient matrix and analysis of Chi square to measure the significance of the relationship. The results of the analysis revealed that there is weak relationship between underlying factors (the selected factors) and relevancy of Micro financial services. Consequently, clients’ responsiveness toward relevancy of Micro financial services also seems to be questionable. Therefore, further studies need to be conducted to establish what other factors that may influence relevancy of Micro financial services to SMEs in Tanzania. Key words: Micro financial Services, Small and Medium Enterprises, Relevancy of Micro financial services, Clients’ responsiveness, Stakeholders Approac

Prevalence and Predictors of HIV Infection among Under FiveYear Children Born to HIV Positive Mothers in Muheza District, North-Eastern Tanzania

Background: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) pandemic has become a serious public health concern worldwide. The prevalence of paediatric HIV infection is largely unknown in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We aimed to determine the prevalence and predictors of HIV infection among under-5 years children in Muheza District, Tanzania.Methods: A facility-based study among mothers/guardians with their under-5 years children exposed to HIV infection was conducted from June 2015 to June 2016. Information on HIV status, socio-demographic and other family characteristics was collected using a structured questionnaire. Data analysis was performed using STATA version 13.0.Results: A total of 576 HIV-exposed under-5 years children were recruited together with their respective mothers/guardians. The HIV prevalence among under-5 years children was 10.6% (95% CI: 8.1-13.1%). The burden of HIV infection was observed among older children aged 25 to 59 months (AOR= 8.0, 95% CI 2.5-26.0) than in the younger children. There was a four-fold (AOR=3.9, 95% CI 1.7-9.1) risk of HIV infection among children born to mothers of unknown HIV status at conception than among children born to mothers with known HIV status. The odds of HIV infection were higher among children who were delivered from home (AOR=2.6, 95% CI 1.0-6.5), received mixed feeding (AOR=2.4, 95% CI 1.2-4.9), and those living far from a health facility (AOR=3.0, 95% CI 1.4-6.5).Conclusion: The prevalence of HIV among under-5 years children in Muheza is higher among older children. The high prevalence is associated with being born to mothers with unknown HIV status at conception, received mixed feeding, home delivery, and living far from the health facility. Campaigns that provide health educational massages addressing risk factors of HIV need to be emphasised in order to promote the control and prevention of HIV among children

Accessibility of services for early infant diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review

Background: Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is one of the major interventions for HIV and AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. However, the coverage is still lower than the recommended levels. The objective of this review was to systematically assess factors associated with accessibility of EID services in sub-Saharan Africa.Methods: Scientific engines were searched from library catalogues and public databases. The review included free full text articles in English published from 1996 to 2015 and fitting to the objectives of the study.Results: A total of 1,039,715 results appeared on the databases after initial searching. Of these, 48 eligible articles were identified and reviewed. From 2004 to 2014, the proportion of HIV exposed infants who received a virological test within the first 2 months of life in sub-Saharan Africa varied from 3 to 58%, far below the 80% recommended level by the World Health Organization. EID services were not available in more than 30% of health facilities in most sub-Saharan African countries. Factors associated with accessibility of EID services included parents with low formal education level, maternal unemployment, geographical relocation, religious beliefs, lack of paternal support, insufficient awareness of HIV control and prevention services, poor compliance to prevention of mother to child transmission services, lack of general knowledge of HIV transmission, stigma and discrimination, inadequate human resource for health, weak infrastructure, inadequate supplies of laboratory materials and late feedback of HIV test results.Conclusion: Availability and accessibility of EID services in sub-Saharan Africa is still low despite the investment made during the past decade. Both individual and institutional factors affect the availability and accessibility of the services. It is important that these factors are urgently addressed to improve EID services

Methodologies of the 4-beaches Survey and Stakeholder Workshops

As it is clearly indicated in the title of this book section, it overviews the methodologies used in the 4-beaches Survey and in the various Stakeholders' Workshops held in all the three riparian countries of the Lake Victoria

Malaria surveillance and use of evidence in planning and decision making in Kilosa District, Tanzania

Background: Since 2001, Tanzania has been making concerted efforts to strengthen its Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response system. In this system, malaria is one of the priority diseases that are to be reported monthly. The objectives of this study were to (i) assess malaria surveillance system at facility and district levels to identify key barriers, constraints and priority actions for malaria surveillance strengthening; and (ii) to explore the use of evidence in health planning and decision making at these levels.Methods: The study was carried in Kilosa District in central Tanzania, during October 2012 and involved health facility workers and members of the district health management team. The existing information system on malaria was evaluated using a structured questionnaire and check list. Data collection also involved direct observations of reporting and processing, assessment of report forms and reports of processed data.Results: Three district officials and 17 health facility workers from both public and private health facilities were interviewed. Of the 17 informants, 15 were familiar with disease surveillance functions. A good percentage (47%, 8/17) received training on disease surveillance during the previous two years. Public transport and motorcycles were the main means of reporting epidemiological information from facility to district level. Most of the health facilities (93%, 14/15) faced difficulties in submitting reports due to lack of resources and feedback from the district authority. Analysis of malaria data was reported in 52.9% (9/17) of the facilities, but limited to malaria incidence per age groups. Challenges in data analysis included unavailability of compilation books; lack of computers; poor data storage; incomplete recording; lack of adequate skills for data analysis; and increase in workloads. Data at both facility and district levels were mainly used for quantification and forecasting of drug requirements.Conclusion: Malaria surveillance system in Kilosa district is weak and utilization of evidence for planning and decision making is poor. Capacity strengthening on data analysis and utilization should be given a priority at both facility and district levels of the health systems in Tanzania

Systematic review and meta-analysis: prevalence of alcohol use among young people in eastern Africa.

OBJECTIVE: Systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies of alcohol use among young people (age 15-24 years) in eastern Africa to estimate prevalence of alcohol use and determine the extent of use of standardised screening questionnaires in alcohol studies. METHODS: Five databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, Global Health, Africa-wide, and PsycINFO) were searched for publications until 30th June 2013. Results were summarised using the guidelines on preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) and on quality assessment using the modified quality assessment tool for systematic reviews of observational studies (QATSO). Heterogeneity was assessed using the I(2) statistic (DerSimonian-Laird). RESULTS: We identified 2785 potentially relevant studies, of which 56 were eligible for inclusion. Only two studies (4%) used the standardised Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) questionnaire, and six studies (13%) used the Cut down, Annoyed, Guilt, Eye opener (CAGE) questionnaire. The reported median prevalence of alcohol use was ever-use 52% [interquartile range (IQR): 20-58%], use in the last month 28% (IQR: 17-37%), use in the last year 26% (IQR: 22-32%), and problem drinking as defined by CAGE or AUDIT 15% (IQR: 3-36%). We observed high heterogeneity between studies, with the highest prevalence of ever use of alcohol among university students (82%; 95%CI: 79-85%) and female sex workers (66%; 95%CI: 58-74%). Current use was most prevalent among male sex workers (69%; 95%CI: 63-75%). CONCLUSIONS: Reported alcohol use and problem drinking were common among diverse groups of young people in eastern Africa, indicating the urgent need for alcohol-focused interventions in this population. Few studies have used standardised alcohol screening questionnaires. Epidemiological research to investigate alcohol-focused interventions in young people should aim to apply such questionnaires that should be validated for use in this population