The Case of Bosnia

Case Study Prepared for Intervention in Internal ConflictThe case of Bosnia presents analysts with a complex set of circumstances and factors surrounding multiple instances of intervention, carried out by a diverse set of external actors. Indeed, even the distinction between "internal" and "external" might be considered problematic in this case. For the purposes of this analysis, the conflict among Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Croats, and Bosnian Muslims (who have since adopted the "Bosniac" label) is defined as an internal conflict over the status of the territory and its internal political organization. This conflict erupted as part of the larger set of conflicts surrounding the disintegration of the former Yugoslav federal state, of which Bosnia and Herzegovina was a federal "republic". However, the larger conflict will be treated only as context, and not subjected to detailed analysis here. The direct and indirect involvement of the neighboring states of Serbia and Croatia in the internal Bosnian conflict, which could be defined as "external" interventions by local powers, are instead treated here as dimensions of the internal conflict. The involvement of these local powers, and their very real interests in the outcome of the conflict, were important factors affecting the series of decisions by US and other Western policymakers, as well as UN actors, concerning intervention. Recent changes that have moved both Croatia and Serbia in the direction of democratization, disavowal of support for the ethnic dismemberment of Bosnia, and even affirmation of the principle of territorial integrity have improved the prospect that international intervention will ultimately succeed in establishing some form of multinational state in Bosnia, although the institutional character of such a state remains in doubt. This paper focuses on the decisions and actions of external policymakers, and US policymakers in particular, as "third parties" to the conflict, and the outcomes of their interventions in it

Liquid – liquid phase separation morphologies in ultra-white beetle scales and a synthetic equivalent

Cyphochilus beetle scales are amongst the brightest structural whites in nature, being highly opacifying whilst extremely thin. However, the formation mechanism for the voided intra- scale structure is unknown. Here we report 3D x-ray nanotomography data for the voided chitin networks of intact white scales of Cyphochilus and Lepidiota stigma. Chitin-filling frac- tions are found to be 31 ± 2% for Cyphochilus and 34 ± 1% for Lepidiota stigma, indicating previous measurements overestimated their density. Optical simulations using finite- difference time domain for the chitin morphologies and simulated Cahn-Hilliard spinodal structures show excellent agreement. Reflectance curves spanning filling fraction of 5-95% for simulated spinodal structures, pinpoint optimal whiteness for 25% chitin filling. We make a simulacrum from a polymer undergoing a strong solvent quench, resulting in highly reflective ( 94%) white films. In-situ X-ray scattering confirms the nanostructure is formed through spinodal decomposition phase separation. We conclude that the ultra-white beetle scale nanostructure is made via liquid–liquid phase separation

Long Distance Movements and Disjunct Spatial Use of Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) in the Inland Waters of the Pacific Northwest

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, adult harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) typically limit their movements and activity to <50 km from their primary haul-out site. As a result, the ecological impact of harbor seals is viewed as limited to relatively small spatial scales. Harbor seals in the Pacific Northwest are believed to remain <30 km from their primary haul-out site, one of several contributing factors to the current stock designation. However, movement patterns within the region are not well understood because previous studies have used radio-telemetry, which has range limitations. Our objective was to use satellite-telemetry to determine the regional spatial scale of movements. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Satellite tags were deployed on 20 adult seals (n=16 males and 4 females) from two rocky reefs and a mudflat-bay during April-May 2007. Standard filtering algorithms were used to remove outliers, resulting in an average (± SD) of 693 (± 377) locations per seal over 110 (± 32) days. A particle filter was implemented to interpolate locations temporally and decrease erroneous locations on land. Minimum over-water distances were calculated between filtered locations and each seal's capture site to show movement of seals over time relative to their capture site, and we estimated utilization distributions from kernel density analysis to reflect spatial use. Eight males moved >100 km from their capture site at least once, two of which traveled round trip to and from the Pacific coast, a total distance >400 km. Disjunct spatial use patterns observed provide new insight into general harbor seal behavior. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Long-distance movements and disjunct spatial use of adult harbor seals have not been reported for the study region and are rare worldwide in such a large proportion of tagged individuals. Thus, the ecological influence of individual seals may reach farther than previously assumed

The Cysteine Rich Necrotrophic Effector SnTox1 Produced by Stagonospora nodorum Triggers Susceptibility of Wheat Lines Harboring Snn1

The wheat pathogen Stagonospora nodorum produces multiple necrotrophic effectors (also called host-selective toxins) that promote disease by interacting with corresponding host sensitivity gene products. SnTox1 was the first necrotrophic effector identified in S. nodorum, and was shown to induce necrosis on wheat lines carrying Snn1. Here, we report the molecular cloning and validation of SnTox1 as well as the preliminary characterization of the mechanism underlying the SnTox1-Snn1 interaction which leads to susceptibility. SnTox1 was identified using bioinformatics tools and verified by heterologous expression in Pichia pastoris. SnTox1 encodes a 117 amino acid protein with the first 17 amino acids predicted as a signal peptide, and strikingly, the mature protein contains 16 cysteine residues, a common feature for some avirulence effectors. The transformation of SnTox1 into an avirulent S. nodorum isolate was sufficient to make the strain pathogenic. Additionally, the deletion of SnTox1 in virulent isolates rendered the SnTox1 mutated strains avirulent on the Snn1 differential wheat line. SnTox1 was present in 85% of a global collection of S. nodorum isolates. We identified a total of 11 protein isoforms and found evidence for strong diversifying selection operating on SnTox1. The SnTox1-Snn1 interaction results in an oxidative burst, DNA laddering, and pathogenesis related (PR) gene expression, all hallmarks of a defense response. In the absence of light, the development of SnTox1-induced necrosis and disease symptoms were completely blocked. By comparing the infection processes of a GFP-tagged avirulent isolate and the same isolate transformed with SnTox1, we conclude that SnTox1 may play a critical role during fungal penetration. This research further demonstrates that necrotrophic fungal pathogens utilize small effector proteins to exploit plant resistance pathways for their colonization, which provides important insights into the molecular basis of the wheat-S. nodorum interaction, an emerging model for necrotrophic pathosystems

Russians, natives and Jews in the Soviet scientific elite [Cadre competition in Central Asia]

Steven L. Burg, Russians, natives and Jews in the Soviet scientific elite. Cadre competition in Central Asia. Increasing members of non-Russians, and especially of Central Asians, have been entering the ranks of the Soviet scientific and technical elite since the end of World War II. High proportions of these cadres remain in their titular republics, giving rise to a process of "nativization" of the scientific elite. "Nativization" in Central Asia is producing increased competition for positions there and, consequently, increased inter-ethnic tensions between native and non-native cadres. Soviet sociologists suggest that such tensions can be controlled by ensuring continued upward mobility for native cadres. One means by which the central Soviet leadership might attempt to ensure such mobility is the gradual removal of Jewish cadres from positions in Central Asia and their replacement by natives. This might be achieved simply as the result of the natural reduction in the number of Jewish cadres likely to result from death, emigration, and the declining number of new Jewish candidates for positions. If this natural decrease is not sufficient, the Soviet leadership is likely to remove Jews forcibly.Steven L. Burg, Russes, autochtones et Juifs dans l'élite scientifique soviétique. La compétition des cadres en Asie Centrale. Depuis la fin de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, un nombre croissant de non- Russes, en particulier de ressortissants d'Asie Centrale, sont entrés dans les rangs de l'élite scientifique et technique soviétique. Des pourcentages élevés de ces cadres demeurent dans leur République d'origine, provoquant un processus ď « autochtonisation » de l'élite scientifique. En Asie Centrale, 1' « autochtonisation » est à l'origine d'une compétition accrue pour l'obtention des postes et, par voie de conséquence, ce phénomène accroît les tensions inter-ethniques entre cadres et autochtones et non-autochtones. Les sociologues soviétiques estiment que de telles tensions peuvent être maîtrisées à condition d'assurer l'ascension continue des cadres autochtones. Un des moyens par lesquels le pouvoir central soviétique pourrait tenter d'assurer cette mobilité serait d'éliminer progressivement les cadres juifs des postes qu'ils occupent en Asie Centrale et de les remplacer par des autochtones. Cela pourrait se faire simplement par suite d'une réduction naturelle du nombre de cadres juifs (résultant des décès, de l'émigration et du nombre décroissant de nouveaux candidats juifs à ces postes). Si cette diminution naturelle ne suffit pas, il est probable que le pouvoir soviétique déplacera les Juifs de force.Burg Steven L. Russians, natives and Jews in the Soviet scientific elite [Cadre competition in Central Asia]. In: Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, vol. 20, n°1, Janvier-Mars 1979. pp. 43-59

'It's not their job to soldier': distinguishing civilian and military in soldiers' and interpreters' accounts of peacekeeping in 1990s Bosnia-Herzegovina

Peacekeeping operations throw the use of specialized military forces and the aim of accomplishing change in a civilian environment into contradiction. Organizations with cultures that facilitate warfighting have to reorient themselves towards achieving peace and consent rather than victory, making peacekeeping a process of constant intercultural encounters between ‘military’ and ‘civilian’ as well as between ‘international’ and ‘local’. The force’s local employees, civilians necessary in the force’s military tasks, inhabited a particularly ambiguous position. Based on more than 30 oral history interviews with peacekeepers and local interpreters who worked in Bosnia-Herzegovina, this paper shows how four dimensions of cultural and bodily difference emerged from their narratives: uniforms, weapons, disruptiveness and training