Reversibility of airway remodeling in equine asthma : contribution of anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator therapies

L’asthme bronchique est caractérisé par un remodelage et une inflammation des voies aériennes. La masse du muscle lisse ainsi que la déposition de matrice extracellulaire sont augmentées dans la paroi des bronches asthmatiques, ce qui contribue à l’obstruction respiratoire. Peu d’études ont évalué les effets des traitements utilisés dans l’asthme sur le remodelage bronchique, et surtout peu de données sont disponibles concernant les effets sur le muscle lisse. La combinaison de corticostéroïdes et de β2-agonistes à longue durée d’action administrée par inhalation permet de mieux contrôler les crises d’asthme par rapport à la monothérapie avec des médicaments corticostéroïdes. Cependant, l’action spécifique de la combinaison sur le remodelage et sur l’inflammation des bronches périphériques n’est pas décrite. Surtout, il reste à clarifier si l’administration de la combinaison est avantageuse par rapport à la monothérapie corticostéroïde. La plupart des études réalisées chez l’homme utilisent des tissus bronchiques obtenus par biopsie endobronchique, qui ne sont pas représentatifs du processus pathologique affectant les voies respiratoires périphériques. Leur inaccessibilité par des méthodes non invasives est la raison pour laquelle si peu de données existent sur la pathophysiologie des voies périphériques chez les patients asthmatiques. L’asthme équin, aussi connu comme « le souffle », est une pathologie obstructive des chevaux adultes considérée comme un modèle animal d’asthme humain. Elle est caractérisée par un remodelage des bronches périphériques et par une inflammation bronchoalvéolaire de type neutrophilique. En étudiant le modèle équin, cette thèse a évalué la contribution des médicaments corticostéroïdes et de β2-agonistes à longue durée d’action, administrée comme monothérapies ou en combinaison, sur la réversibilité du remodelage et de l’inflammation de voies aériennes dans l’asthme bronchique. A cette fin, nous avons d’abord optimisé et validé l’application de la biopsie endobronchique et de l’échographie endobronchique chez le cheval adulte. Nos résultats indiquent que les échantillons obtenus par biopsie endobronchique sont inadéquats pour l’évaluation quantitative de la masse du muscle lisse chez le cheval. Cependant, ils permettent d’étudier les changements quantitatifs des structures épithéliales et de la lamina propria, ainsi que les aspects qualitatifs du muscle lisse. L’échographie endobronchique, quant à elle, permet d'estimer la masse du muscle lisse bronchique, et ce, chez des chevaux sains et chez des chevaux asthmatiques. Cette thèse démontre aussi que qu’un traitement de 12 semaines avec des corticostéroïdes induit une diminution significative de la masse du muscle lisse périphérique, qui n’est pas amélioré davantage par l’administration concomitante d’un β2-agoniste à longue durée d’action. Cette diminution est toutefois incomplète. Un effet positif et synergique de la combinaison a également été observé au niveau de la déposition de matrice extracellulaire. La combinaison a produit une diminution significative de la quantité de matrices déposées dans la lamina propria et dans la couche du muscle lisse dans les bronches centrales, alors que l’effet été limité à la couche du muscle lisse dans les bronches périphériques. La combinaison n’améliore pas le contrôle de l’inflammation bronchique ni bronchiolaire par rapport aux monothérapies ; cependant, elle diminue la neutrophilie bronchoalvéolaire de façon synergique.Airway remodeling and inflammation are the hallmarks of asthma. Both airway smooth muscle (ASM) mass and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition are increased in the central and peripheral airways of asthmatic patients, which contribute to airway obstruction. Few studies have investigated the ability of current asthma medications to reverse airway remodeling, especially the increased ASM mass. Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and long-acting β2-agonist combinations (ICS/LABA) are more effective than ICS monotherapy to control asthma exacerbations. However, their efficacy at modifying bronchial inflammation and remodeling at the peripheral level of the lung is not well-described. In fact, most work has been performed using endobronchial biopsy samples obtained from asthmatic subjects, which completely disregard the alterations occurring in peripheral airways. Ethical considerations limit the possibility of biopsying the peripheral airways in humans due to the invasiveness of the procedure. Equine asthma, or heaves, is a naturally-occurring disease of adult horses and a recognized animal model of human asthma characterized by neutrophilic inflammation as well as ASM and ECM remodeling of peripheral airways. This thesis has assessed the contribution of ICS and LABA, alone or combined, to the reversal of remodeling and inflammation in central and peripheral airways using the equine asthma model. To attain this goal, we have first optimized and validated the application of endobronchial biopsy and endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) in the equine species. EBUS reliably estimates the bronchial ASM. Subsequently, asthmatic horses with ongoing airway remodeling and inflammation were treated with ICS, LABA, ICS/LABA, or antigen avoidance. Lung function, airway remodeling and inflammation were then assessed weekly for 3 months. Our results demonstrated a 30% decrease of peripheral ASM remodeling attained with ICS and ICS/LABA pharmacological treatment. A decrease of a similar magnitude of peripheral ASM was previously reported after 6 and 12 months of ICS monotherapy and antigen avoidance, respectively. A synergistic effect of ICS/LABA was observed on ECM deposition and airway lumen neutrophils. ICS/LABA decreased the ECM fraction of the ASM layer both peripherally and centrally, while the same effect on the lamina propria was observed only in central airways. Both ICS/LABA and ICS monotherapy decreased submucosal inflammation in central airways, while only ICS/LABA and antigen avoidance decreased bronchoalveolar neutrophilia. In conclusion, our results suggest that the enhanced therapeutic effect of ICS/LABA over ICS monotherapy in asthmatic horses was associated with a reduction of ECM deposition, mainly observed within the large airways, and possibly also with a decreased airway neutrophilia. However, ICS/LABA did not provide additional benefit to ICS monotherapy in terms of peripheral ASM remodeling as both induce a 30% decrease of the ASM mass in 3 months

Identification of surgically-induced longitudinal lesions of the equine deep digital flexor tendon in the digital flexor tendon sheath using contrast-enhanced ultrasonography: an ex-vivo pilot study

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal tears in the lateral aspect of the deep digital flexor tendon are the most common causes of pain localised to the equine digital flexor tendon sheath. However conventional ultrasonographic techniques provide limited information about acute lesions. Ultrasonographic contrast agents are newly developed materials that have contributed to advancement in human diagnostic imaging. They are currently approved for intravenous use in human and animal models. In this study we described intrathecal use in the horse. This study was undertaken to evaluate the reliability of standard and angle contrast-enhanced ultrasonography to detect and characterize surgically-induced longitudinal lesions in the deep digital flexor tendons. In this pilot study surgically-induced lesions were created in the lateral aspect of the deep digital flexor tendon within the digital flexor tendon sheath in 10 isolated equine limbs to generate a replicable model for naturally occurring lesions. Another 10 specimens were sham operated. All the limbs were examined ultrasonographically before and shortly after the intrasynovial injection of an ultrasound contrast agent containing stabilised microbubbles. The images were blindly evaluated to detect the ability to identify surgically-created lesions. The deep digital flexor tendons were dissected and a series of slices were obtained. The depth of longitudinal defects identified with contrast-enhanced ultrasound scans was compared to the real extent of the lesions measured in the corresponding gross tendon sections. RESULTS: Contrast-enhanced ultrasonography with both angle and standard approach provided a significant higher proportion of correct diagnoses compared to standard and angle contrast ultrasonography (p < 0.01). Contrast-enhanced ultrasonography reliably estimated the depth of surgically-induced longitudinal lesions in the deep digital flexor tendons. CONCLUSION: Contrast-enhanced ultrasound of the digital flexor tendon sheath could be an effective tool to detect intrasynovial longitudinal tears of the deep digital flexor tendon, although an in vivo study is required to confirm these results for naturally occurring lesions

Epidemiology of musculoskeletal injuries in a population of harness Standardbred racehorses in training

BACKGROUND: There is a substantial paucity of studies concerning musculoskeletal injuries in harness Standardbred racehorses. Specifically, little is known about the epidemiology of exercise-related musculoskeletal injuries. Most studies on this subject involve Thoroughbred racehorses, whose biomechanics and racing speed differ from Standardbred, making comparisons difficult. Here, a population of Standardbred racehorses trained at the same racecourse was studied over four years and a classification system for exercise-related musculoskeletal injuries was designed. The incidence rates of musculoskeletal injuries causing horses’ withdrawal from training for 15 days or longer were investigated. A mixed-effects Poisson regression model was used to estimate musculoskeletal injury rates and to describe significance of selected risk factors for exercise-related injuries in this population. RESULTS: A total of 356 trotter racehorses from 10 different stables contributed 8961 months at risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Four-hundred-and-twenty-nine injuries were reported and classified into 16 categories, based on their aetiology and anatomical localisation. The overall exercise-related injury rate was 4.79 per 100 horse months. When considering risk factors one by one in separate univariable analyses, we obtained the following results: rates did not differ significantly between genders and classes of age, whereas one driver seemed to cause fewer injuries than the others. Racing speed and racing intensity, as well as recent medical history, seemed to be significant risk factors (p < 0.001), while being shod or unshod during racing was not. On the other hand, when pooling several risk factors in a multivariable approach, only racing intensity turned out to be significant (p < 0.001), since racing speed and the racing intensity were partially confounded, being strongly correlated to one another. CONCLUSION: Characterizing epidemiology of exercise-related musculoskeletal injuries in trotter racehorses provides baseline incidence rate values. Incidence rates of stress fracture are lower in Standardbreds compared to Thoroughbreds, whereas the opposite is true for tendon and suspensory ligament injuries. In addition to identification of risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries among Standardbred racehorses, results suggest that racing intensity seems to be a protective predictor of risk and recent medical history could be used to identify horses at risk of injury

Assessment of pulmonary vascular smooth muscle remodeling in severe equine asthma

Severe equine asthma (SEA) is characterized by reversible airway obstruction and hypoxemia. Pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction occurs during SEA exacerbation, inducing pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, PH is only partially reversed by oxygen administration, and other etiological factors are uninvestigated (Dixon 1978). In rodent asthma models, airway inflammation is associated with pulmonary artery (PA) remodeling (Rydell-Tormanen, Uller et al. 2009), that could contribute to PH, as known in human chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Barbera, Peinado et al. 2003). We investigated the presence of PA remodeling in SEA, the involvement of vascular smooth muscle (VSM) alterations and their reversibility following long-term antigen avoidance or inhaled corticosteroids. Using histomorphometry, the PA wall was measured on sections stained with hematoxylin-eosin saffron, collected post-mortem from different lung regions of 12 asthmatic horses and 6 controls. Pulmonary vascular smooth muscle (VSM) mass was measured on sections stained for α-smooth muscle actin collected with in vivo thoracoscopy or post-mortem peripheral lung biopsy from 5 controls, 6 asthmatic horses in remission, and 11 asthmatic horses while exacerbation and after 1 year of antigen avoidance alone (5 horses) or treatment with fluticasone (6 horses). Data were compared using unpaired t test with Welch correction or paired t test (p&lt;0.05). PA wall surface percentage was increased in apical (p=0.003) and caudo-dorsal (p=0.03) lung regions (respectively 50,66±13,16% and 50,56±15,02) of asthmatic horses, when compared to controls (respectively 35,38±7,06% and 38,13±10,18). Similarly, VSM mass percentage was increased (p=0.03) in asthmatic horses (47,77±3,17%), compared to controls (41,07±6,22%). A tendency for normalization of the VSM mass was observed after treatment with antigen avoidance (p=0.05; 39,64±4,02%), but not with fluticasone (p=0.27; 45,35±14,98%). Remodeling of the PA occurs in SEA and the increase in VSM could lead to lumen narrowing and enhance hypoxic vasoconstriction, contributing to PH during exacerbation. VSM mass normalization is more effectively obtained by antigen avoidance than by corticosteroids