Recent and projected seasonal changes to river flows combine with human pressures to restructure the base of the marine food web in Puget Sound

Quantifying large-scale climate impacts, ecosystem responses, and human pressures requires sustained ecosystem monitoring and data integration. The Salish Sea is influenced by oceanic processes and hydrological cycles on land. The interplay of processes across the land-ocean continuum benefits the Puget Sound ecosystem by extending the productive cold-water food web of the upwelling system off Washington’s coast into Puget Sound during summer while buffering water temperatures in winter. Circulation patterns that drive water exchange between Puget Sound and the ocean are responding to climate and the timing of river flows. Historically the freshet and coastal upwelling coincide in summer and allow the productive foodweb to thrive in Puget Sound. Recent years have seen warmer winters causing both earlier snowmelt and therefore reduced summer flows. This temporal separation of upwelling and the freshet results in reduced ocean water renewal, increased water residence time, warmer water, and amplified human impacts during summer. In winter, however, water exchange is increased and keeps Puget Sound water warmer by importing heat from the ocean. These effects combine and have potential ecosystem-wide implications. Coastal eutrophication indicators (large algae blooms, red tides, macro-algae, and jellyfish) are already common place in Puget Sound. These changes in the timing of circulation patterns and nutrient characteristics alter the base of the marine food web while expanding the winter range of cold sensitive species into Puget Sound. In this presentation we conceptually lay out mechanisms, spatial connectivity, observations and hypotheses connecting the dots of climate impacts across the land-ocean continuum and the combined effects on ecosystem processes

Recent conditions highlight regional differences in temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen between Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound sites under anomalous 2014-2017 climate patterns

Understanding impacts of climate change on Salish Sea water quality is critical yet challenging due to the complexity, strength and diversity of influences on circulation and mixing. Different extreme climate conditions in recent years (2014-2017) include record warm temperatures with reduced snow pack in 2014-2015 followed by a few years of alternating summer droughts with record rainy seasons. These conditions influenced marine water temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen (DO) throughout the Salish Sea. Analyses reveal distinct differences in these key physical and chemical characteristics between Strait of Juan de Fuca sites and sites within Puget Sound basins. Extremely low DO water in the Strait not observed at neighboring sites in Puget Sound. This indicates that Puget Sound water exchange and circulation are responding to climate change impacts on the regional hydrological cycle. Lower stream flows are effecting seasonal exchange of ocean water masses under drought conditions, while extremely wet and stormy springs are changing the average salinity of Puget Sound basins and impacting the density structure. Following these physical fluctuations, DO conditions vary from season to season, with new anomalous lows occurring in the Strait and the extreme reaches of South Puget Sound. These conditions could reveal how biophysical drivers of Puget Sound water quality impact food web dynamics during adverse climate and ocean regimes. Local water quality issues that are exacerbated due to reduced circulation may be influencing distinct populations in different basins. We can use these basic biophysical properties to inform us about key drivers of regional differences in the Puget Sound food web

How did large scale climate anomalies impact 2015 phytoplankton blooms in Puget Sound?

The Washington State Department of Ecology has been routinely monitoring marine water quality throughout the Puget Sound since 1973. An established historic baseline from 1999 to 2008 allows us to examine how water quality varies year to year as a result of both natural and human influences. The recent large scale climate anomaly, the Blob, impacted this region when a mass of warm water entered Puget Sound in fall 2014. In conjunction with higher than normal air temperatures, patterns of estuarine circulation and stratification were regionally altered in Puget Sound. Changes to these physical patterns affect ecosystem functions starting at the base of the food web with phytoplankton. The water quality data collected monthly in 2015 allows us to gain a better understanding of how large-scale climate anomalies affect the timing and amplitude of phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll a) in different regions of Puget Sound. Exploring the regional changes in phytoplankton biomass in response to the Blob provides us with insight into how future climate impacts could effect ecosystem functioning in different regions of Puget Sound

Fecundity and Sexual Maturity of the Coral Siderastrea siderea at High Latitude Along the Florida Reef Tract, USA

Siderastrea siderea is one of the most abundant corals at high latitude shallow sites along the Florida Reef Tract (25°–27°N). This species is able to tolerate wide seawater temperature fluctuations and sedimentation stress, but its reproductive status at high latitudes and under marginal environmental conditions is poorly understood. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the reproductive potential of S. siderea along a latitudinal gradient (25°–27°N) and to determine if sexual maturity occurs in small (\u3c12.0 cm) S. siderea colonies. Samples of coral tissue were collected in 2007, 2008, and 2009 at three sites along the latitudinal gradient and were processed for histological analysis. Oocyte size, volume, and abundance were used to calculate fecundity. Results showed that fecundity decreased with increasing latitude and that oocyte volume was the major contributing factor to this variation. Mature oocytes were observed in S. siderea colonies at sizes as small as 1.1 cm in diameter. The ability of S. siderea to reach fertility at high latitude areas suggests this species is able to reproduce under marginal environmental conditions; however, reduction in oocyte size could increase local retention of larvae. The presence of mature oocytes in small colonies suggests that stress can reduce somatic growth and shift sexual maturity to smaller colony sizes

Recent climate patterns are affecting seasonal water residence times and water temperatures in Puget Sound

At the end of 2014 water temperatures in Puget Sound rapidly increased in response to The Blob and persisted into 2017. Climate anomalies on land caused premature snow melt and freshening of Puget Sound. The seasonal shift in freshwater delivery increased winter estuarine circulation allowing greater import of heat from the ocean but decreased summer circulation, retaining more heat in Puget Sound in summer. In both seasons, Puget Sound temperatures increased affecting water quality and ecosystem performance. We contrast salinity, temperature, and density records from 2014-2017 to infer residence time and changes in water masses during the extreme climate years. Increased winter temperatures \u3e8C might have promoted overwintering for temperature sensitive species such as anchovy

Convalescent plasma in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised controlled, open-label, platform trial

Background: Many patients with COVID-19 have been treated with plasma containing anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. We aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of convalescent plasma therapy in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19. Methods: This randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial (Randomised Evaluation of COVID-19 Therapy [RECOVERY]) is assessing several possible treatments in patients hospitalised with COVID-19 in the UK. The trial is underway at 177 NHS hospitals from across the UK. Eligible and consenting patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive either usual care alone (usual care group) or usual care plus high-titre convalescent plasma (convalescent plasma group). The primary outcome was 28-day mortality, analysed on an intention-to-treat basis. The trial is registered with ISRCTN, 50189673, and ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04381936. Findings: Between May 28, 2020, and Jan 15, 2021, 11558 (71%) of 16287 patients enrolled in RECOVERY were eligible to receive convalescent plasma and were assigned to either the convalescent plasma group or the usual care group. There was no significant difference in 28-day mortality between the two groups: 1399 (24%) of 5795 patients in the convalescent plasma group and 1408 (24%) of 5763 patients in the usual care group died within 28 days (rate ratio 1·00, 95% CI 0·93–1·07; p=0·95). The 28-day mortality rate ratio was similar in all prespecified subgroups of patients, including in those patients without detectable SARS-CoV-2 antibodies at randomisation. Allocation to convalescent plasma had no significant effect on the proportion of patients discharged from hospital within 28 days (3832 [66%] patients in the convalescent plasma group vs 3822 [66%] patients in the usual care group; rate ratio 0·99, 95% CI 0·94–1·03; p=0·57). Among those not on invasive mechanical ventilation at randomisation, there was no significant difference in the proportion of patients meeting the composite endpoint of progression to invasive mechanical ventilation or death (1568 [29%] of 5493 patients in the convalescent plasma group vs 1568 [29%] of 5448 patients in the usual care group; rate ratio 0·99, 95% CI 0·93–1·05; p=0·79). Interpretation: In patients hospitalised with COVID-19, high-titre convalescent plasma did not improve survival or other prespecified clinical outcomes. Funding: UK Research and Innovation (Medical Research Council) and National Institute of Health Research

Tocilizumab in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial

Background: In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of tocilizumab in adult patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 with both hypoxia and systemic inflammation. Methods: This randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial (Randomised Evaluation of COVID-19 Therapy [RECOVERY]), is assessing several possible treatments in patients hospitalised with COVID-19 in the UK. Those trial participants with hypoxia (oxygen saturation <92% on air or requiring oxygen therapy) and evidence of systemic inflammation (C-reactive protein ≥75 mg/L) were eligible for random assignment in a 1:1 ratio to usual standard of care alone versus usual standard of care plus tocilizumab at a dose of 400 mg–800 mg (depending on weight) given intravenously. A second dose could be given 12–24 h later if the patient's condition had not improved. The primary outcome was 28-day mortality, assessed in the intention-to-treat population. The trial is registered with ISRCTN (50189673) and ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04381936). Findings: Between April 23, 2020, and Jan 24, 2021, 4116 adults of 21 550 patients enrolled into the RECOVERY trial were included in the assessment of tocilizumab, including 3385 (82%) patients receiving systemic corticosteroids. Overall, 621 (31%) of the 2022 patients allocated tocilizumab and 729 (35%) of the 2094 patients allocated to usual care died within 28 days (rate ratio 0·85; 95% CI 0·76–0·94; p=0·0028). Consistent results were seen in all prespecified subgroups of patients, including those receiving systemic corticosteroids. Patients allocated to tocilizumab were more likely to be discharged from hospital within 28 days (57% vs 50%; rate ratio 1·22; 1·12–1·33; p<0·0001). Among those not receiving invasive mechanical ventilation at baseline, patients allocated tocilizumab were less likely to reach the composite endpoint of invasive mechanical ventilation or death (35% vs 42%; risk ratio 0·84; 95% CI 0·77–0·92; p<0·0001). Interpretation: In hospitalised COVID-19 patients with hypoxia and systemic inflammation, tocilizumab improved survival and other clinical outcomes. These benefits were seen regardless of the amount of respiratory support and were additional to the benefits of systemic corticosteroids. Funding: UK Research and Innovation (Medical Research Council) and National Institute of Health Research

Convalescent plasma in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised controlled, open-label, platform trial

SummaryBackground Azithromycin has been proposed as a treatment for COVID-19 on the basis of its immunomodulatoryactions. We aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of azithromycin in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19.Methods In this randomised, controlled, open-label, adaptive platform trial (Randomised Evaluation of COVID-19Therapy [RECOVERY]), several possible treatments were compared with usual care in patients admitted to hospitalwith COVID-19 in the UK. The trial is underway at 176 hospitals in the UK. Eligible and consenting patients wererandomly allocated to either usual standard of care alone or usual standard of care plus azithromycin 500 mg once perday by mouth or intravenously for 10 days or until discharge (or allocation to one of the other RECOVERY treatmentgroups). Patients were assigned via web-based simple (unstratified) randomisation with allocation concealment andwere twice as likely to be randomly assigned to usual care than to any of the active treatment groups. Participants andlocal study staff were not masked to the allocated treatment, but all others involved in the trial were masked to theoutcome data during the trial. The primary outcome was 28-day all-cause mortality, assessed in the intention-to-treatpopulation. The trial is registered with ISRCTN, 50189673, and ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04381936.Findings Between April 7 and Nov 27, 2020, of 16 442 patients enrolled in the RECOVERY trial, 9433 (57%) wereeligible and 7763 were included in the assessment of azithromycin. The mean age of these study participants was65·3 years (SD 15·7) and approximately a third were women (2944 [38%] of 7763). 2582 patients were randomlyallocated to receive azithromycin and 5181 patients were randomly allocated to usual care alone. Overall,561 (22%) patients allocated to azithromycin and 1162 (22%) patients allocated to usual care died within 28 days(rate ratio 0·97, 95% CI 0·87–1·07; p=0·50). No significant difference was seen in duration of hospital stay (median10 days [IQR 5 to >28] vs 11 days [5 to >28]) or the proportion of patients discharged from hospital alive within 28 days(rate ratio 1·04, 95% CI 0·98–1·10; p=0·19). Among those not on invasive mechanical ventilation at baseline, nosignificant difference was seen in the proportion meeting the composite endpoint of invasive mechanical ventilationor death (risk ratio 0·95, 95% CI 0·87–1·03; p=0·24).Interpretation In patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19, azithromycin did not improve survival or otherprespecified clinical outcomes. Azithromycin use in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 should be restrictedto patients in whom there is a clear antimicrobial indication

Transplantation and Parrotfish Predation: A Study on Small Siderastrea siderea Colonies Offshore Broward County, FL USA

With increasing coastal development along southeastern Florida, nearshore coral reef communities are at an increased risk from anthropogenic impacts. Impact minimization and mitigation efforts associated with permitted coastal construction activities generally exclude nearshore small (\u3c 10 cm diameter) Siderastrea siderea colonies from required coral transplantation due to an assumed high colony mortality associated with transplanting small stony corals. This study evaluated the efficacy of transplanting these small colonies by monitoring survival, growth, and zooxanthellae density post transplantation to an offshore reef area. Unexpected observations of parrotfish predation on the newly transplanted corals were made within the first 24 hours. Within 2 weeks, 94% of the transplants were affected and exhibited recent parrotfish grazing scars. A duplicate transplantation attempt was made at an alternate offshore reef area; however similar results were produced. Due to the high extent of colony tissue loss caused by parrotfish, the initial transplantation effort was repeated with the addition of partial cages to exclude large parrotfish. Zooxanthellae density analysis of the caged colonies revealed an adaptive capability of S. siderea to transplantation as one year post-transplantation, algal densities of the transplanted colonies reflected those of surrounding in situ colonies. A second component of this study investigated if transplantation alone was a direct cause for high predation by examining predation intensity and long-term survival for both transplanted and undisturbed small S. siderea colonies, as well as transplanted Dichocoenia stokesii and Porites porites colonies. Siderastrea siderea colonies were collected from areas surrounding the offshore transplant site and given various stress levels prior to being attached into the transplant grid inter-mixed with colonies transplanted from the shallow nearshore site. All colonies in the transplant grid were placed randomly to eliminate spatial bias. Some nearshore S. siderea transplants were partially caged for 80 days to provide a moderate acclimation period. Many non-caged transplanted colonies suffered some degree of parrotfish predation within 1 week post-transplantation, suggesting that transplantation alone did increase corals susceptibility to predation. However, predation intensity was significantly higher on S. siderea transplanted from nearshore than all in-site transplanted and undisturbed S. siderea colonies from the offshore transplant area. Despite minor parrotfish predation on the offshore in-site transplanted colonies, many displayed long term growth and survival. Partial cages were successful in excluding large parrotfish; however once removed, predation intensity was similar to the non-caged nearshore transplants. Predation on the transplants was selective across both species and place of origin. These results suggest that parrotfish differentiated between transplanted colonies and preferred nearshore S. siderea and P. porites transplants. Findings in this study may aid southeastern Florida resource managers as transplantation activities are frequently utilized due to coastal construction and vessel groundings. The impact of parrotfish corallivory on coral growth and survival should be of higher regard in the light of increasing threats to coral reefs