The journey of addiction: Barriers to and facilitators of drug use cessation among street children and youths in Western Kenya

This mixed-methods study examined barriers to and facilitators of street children’s drug use cessation in Eldoret, Kenya utilizing a cross-sectional survey and focus group discussions with a community-based sample of street-involved children and youth. The primary objective of this study was to describe factors that may assist or impede cessation of drug use that can be utilized in developing substance use interventions for this marginalized population. In 2011, 146 children and youth ages 10–19 years, classified as either children on the street or children of the street were recruited to participate in the cross-sectional survey. Of the 146 children that participated in the survey 40 were invited to participate in focus group discussion; 30 returned voluntarily to participate in the discussions. Several themes were derived from children’s narratives that described the barriers to and facilitators of drug cessation. Specifically, our findings reveal the strength of the addiction to inhalants, the dual role that peers and family play in substance use, and how the social, cultural, and economic context influence or impede cessation. Our findings demonstrate the need to integrate community, family and peers into any intervention in addition to traditional medical and psychological models for treatment of substance use dependence

Factors underlying taking a child to HIV care: implications for reducing loss to follow-up among HIV-infected and-exposed children

Objective: With the aim of reducing pediatric loss to follow-up (LTFU) from HIV clinical care programs in sub-Saharan Africa, we sought to understand the personal and socio-cultural factors associated with the behavior of caregivers taking HIV-infected and -exposed children for care in western Kenya. Methods: Between May and August, 2010, in-depth interviews were conducted with 26 purposively sampled caregivers caring for HIV-infected (7), HIV-exposed (17) and HIV-unknown status (2) children, documented as LTFU from an urban and rural HIV care clinic. All were women with a majority (77%) being biological parents. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and content analyzed. Results: Thematic content analysis of the women's perceptions revealed that their decision about routinely taking their children to HIV care involved multiple levels of factors including: (1) intrapersonal: transport costs, food availability, time constraints due to work commitment, disclosure of HIV status for both mother and child, perception that child is healthy and religious beliefs; (2) interpersonal: unsupportive male partner, stigma by the family and family conflicts; (3) community: cultural norms, changing community dynamics and perceived stigma; (4) health care system: clinic location, lack of patient-centered care, delays at the clinic and different appointment schedules (mother and child). Furthermore, the factors across these different levels interacted with each other in a complex way, illustrating the challenges women face in taking their children to HIV care. Conclusion: The complexity and interconnectedness of the factors underlying retention of children in HIV care perceived by these women caregivers suggests that interventions to reduce pediatric LTFU need to be holistic and address multiple socio-ecological levels. Patient-centered care that integrates a family-centered approach to HIV pediatric care is recommended

The government of Kenya cash transfer for orphaned and vulnerable children: cross-sectional comparison of household and individual characteristics of those with and without

Background: The ‘Cash Transfer to Orphans and Vulnerable Children’ (CT-OVC) in Kenya is a government-supported program intended to provide regular and predictable cash transfers (CT) to poor households taking care of OVC. CT programs can be an effective means of alleviating poverty and facilitating the attainment of an adequate standard of living for people’s health and well-being and other international human rights. The objective of this analysis was to compare the household socioeconomic status, school enrolment, nutritional status, and future outlook of orphaned and separated children receiving the CT compared to those not receiving a CT. Methods: This project analyzes baseline data from a cohort of orphaned and separated children aged \u3c19 years and non-orphaned children living in 300 randomly selected households (HH) in 8 Locations of Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. Baseline data were analyzed using multivariable logistic and Poisson regression comparing children in CT-HHvs. non-CT HH. Odds ratios are adjusted (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for guardian age and sex, child age and sex, and intra-HH correlation. Results: Included in this analysis were data from 1481 children and adolescents in 300 HH (503 participants in CT, 978in non-CT households). Overall there were 922 (62.3%) single orphans, 324 (21.9%) double orphans, and 210 (14.2%) participants had both parents alive and were living with them. Participants in CT-HH were less likely to have≥2pairsofclothes compared to non-CT HH (AOR: 0.32, 95% CI: 0.16-0.63). Those in CT HH were less likely to have missed any days of school in the preceding month (AOR: 0.62, 95% CI: 0.42-0.94) and those aged \u3c1-18 years in CT-HH were less likely to have height stunting for their age (AOR: 0.65, 95% CI: 0.47-0.89). Participants aged at least 10 years in CT-HH were more likely to have a positive future outlook (AOR: 1.72, 95% CI: 1.12-2.65). Conclusions: Children and adolescents in households receiving the CT-OVC appear to have better nutritional status, school attendance, and optimism about the future, compared to those in households not receiving the CT, in spite of some evidence of continued material deprivation. Consideration should be given to expanding the program further

Effect of care environment on educational attainment among orphaned and separated children and adolescents in Western Kenya

Background: There are approximately 140 million orphaned and separated children (OSCA) around the world. In Kenya, many of these children live with extended family while others live in institutions. Despite evidence that orphans are less likely to be enrolled in school than non-orphans, there is little evidence regarding the role of care environment. This evidence is vital for designing programs and policies that promote access to education for orphans, which is not only their human right but also an important social determinant of health. The purpose of this study was to compare educational attainment among OSCA living in Charitable Children’s Institutions and family-based settings in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. Methods: This study analyses follow up data from a cohort of OSCA living in 300 randomly selected households and 17 institutions. We used Poisson regression to estimate the effect of care environment on primary school completion among participants age ≥ 14 as well as full and partial secondary school completion among participants age ≥ 18. Risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals were estimated using a bootstrap method with 1000 replications. Results: The analysis included 1406 participants (495 from institutions, 911 from family-based settings). At baseline, 50% were female, the average age was 9.5 years, 54% were double orphans, and 3% were HIV-positive. At follow- up, 76% of participants age ≥ 14 had completed primary school and 32% of participants age ≥ 18 had completed secondary school. Children living in institutions were significantly more likely to complete primary school (aRR: 1.18, 95% CI: 1.10–1.28) and at least 1 year of secondary school (aRR: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.18–1.39) than children in family-based settings. Children living in institutions were less likely to have completed all 4 years secondary school (aRR: 0.79, 95% CI: 0.43–1.18) than children in family-based settings. Conclusion: Children living in institutional environments were more likely to complete primary school and some secondary school than children living in family-based care. Further support is needed for all orphans to improve primary and secondary school completion. Policies that require orphans to leave institution environments upon their eighteenth birthday may be preventing these youth from completing secondary school

Impact of domestic care environment on trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among orphans in western Kenya

Objective:The aim of this study was to determine the impact of the domestic care environment on the prevalence of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among orphaned and separated children in Uasin Gishu County, western Kenya. Methods:A total of 1565 (55.5% male) orphaned and separated adolescents aged 10–18 years (mean 13.8 years, sd 2.2),were assessed for PTSD and PTEs including bullying, physical abuse and sexual abuse. In this sample, 746 lived in extended family households, 746 in Charitable Children’s Institutions (CCIs), and 73 on the street. Posttraumatic stress symptom (PTSS)scores and PTSD were assessed using the Child PTSD Checklist. Results:Bullying was the commonest PTE in all domestic care environments, followed by physical and sexual abuse. All PTEs were commonest among the street youth followed by CCIs. However, sexual abuse was more prevalent in households than in CCIs. Prevalence of PTSD was highest among street youth (28.8%), then households (15.0%) and CCIs (11.5%). PTSS scores were also highest among street youth, followed by CCIs and households. Bullying was associated with higher PTSS scores and PTSD odds than either sexual or physical abuse. Conclusion:This study demonstrated differences in distribution of trauma and PTSD among orphaned and separated children in different domestic care environments, with street youth suffering more than those in CCIs or households.Interventions are needed to address bullying and sexual abuse, especially in extended family households. Street youth, a heretofore neglected population, are urgently in need of dedicated mental health services and support

Cost Utility of Supporting Family-Based Care to Prevent HIV and Deaths among Orphaned and Separated Children in East Africa: A Markov Model–Based Simulation

Purpose: Strengthening family-based care is a key policy response to the more than 15 million orphaned and separated children who have lost 1 or both parents in sub-Saharan Africa. This analysis estimated the cost-effectiveness of family-based care environments for preventing HIV and death in this population. Design: We developed a time-homogeneous Markov model to simulate the incremental cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted by supporting family-based environments caring for orphaned and separated children in western Kenya. Model parameters were based on data from the longitudinal OSCAR’s Health and Well-Being Project and published literature. We used a societal perspective, annual cycle length, and 3% discount rate. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were simulated over 5- to 15-y horizons, comparing family-based settings to street-based “self-care.” Parameter uncertainty was addressed via deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. Results: Under base-case assumptions, family-based environments prevented 422 HIV infections and 298 deaths in a simulated cohort of 1,000 individuals over 10 y. Compared with street-based self-care, family-based care had an incremental cost of $2,528 per DALY averted (95$2,355 per quality-adjusted life year gained (95% CI: 1,667, 2,413). The probability of family-based care being highly cost-effective was \u3e80% at a willingness-to-pay (WTP) threshold of $2,250/DALY averted. Households receiving government cash transfers had minimally higher cost-effectiveness ratios than households without cash transfers but were still cost-effective at a WTP threshold of twice Kenya’s GDP per capita. Conclusions: Compared with the status quo of street-based self-care, family-based environments offer a cost-effective approach for preventing HIV and death among orphaned children in lower-middle income countries. Decision makers should consider increasing resources to these environments in tandem with social protection programs

Association of Care Environment With HIV Incidence and Death Among Orphaned, Separated, and Street-Connected Children and Adolescents in Western Kenya

Importance: In 2015, there were nearly 140 million orphaned children globally, particularly in low- and middle-income regions, and millions more for whom the street is central to their everyday lives. A total of 16.6 million children were orphaned because of deaths associated with HIV/AIDS, of whom 90% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Although most orphaned and separated children and adolescents in this region are cared for by extended family, the large number of children requiring care has produced a proliferation of institutional care. Few studies have investigated the association between care environment and physical health among orphaned and separated youths in sub-Saharan Africa. Objective: To examine the association of care environment with incident HIV and death among orphaned and separated children and adolescents who were living in charitable children’s institutions, family-based settings, and street settings in western Kenya over almost 10 years. Design, Setting, and Participants: The Orphaned and Separated Children’s Assessments Related to Their Health and Well-Being (OSCAR) project was an observational prospective cohort study conducted in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. The cohort comprised 2551 orphaned, separated, and street-connected children from communities within 8 administrative locations, which included 300 randomly selected households (family-based settings) caring for children who were orphaned from all causes, 19 charitable children’s institutions (institutional settings), and a convenience sample of 100 children who were practicing self-care on the streets (street settings). Participants were enrolled from May 31, 2010, to April 24, 2013, and were followed up until November 30, 2019. Exposures: Care environment (family-based, institutional, or street setting). Main Outcomes and Measures: Survival regression models were used to investigate the association between care environment and incident HIV, death, and time to incident HIV or death. Results: Among 2551 participants, 1230 youths were living in family-based settings, 1230 were living in institutional settings, and 91 were living in street settings. Overall, 1321 participants (51.8%) were male, with a mean (SD) age at baseline of 10.4 (4.8) years. Most participants who were living in institutional (1047 of 1230 youths [85.1%]) or street (71 of 91 youths [78.0%]) settings were double orphaned (ie, both parents had died). A total of 59 participants acquired HIV infection or died during the study period. After adjusting for sex, age, and baseline HIV status, living in a charitable children’s institution was not associated with death (adjusted hazard ratio [AHR], 0.26; 95% CI, 0.07-1.02) or incident HIV (AHR, 1.49; 95% CI, 0.46-4.83). Compared with living in a family-based setting, living in a street setting was associated with death (AHR, 5.46; 95% CI, 2.30-12.94), incident HIV (AHR, 17.31; 95% CI, 5.85-51.25), and time to incident HIV or death (AHR, 7.82; 95% CI, 3.48-17.55). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, after adjusting for potential confounders, no association was found between care environment and HIV incidence or death among youths living in institutional vs family-based settings. However, living in a street setting vs a family-based setting was associated with both HIV incidence and death. This study’s findings suggest that strengthening of child protection systems and greater investment in evidence-based family support systems that improve child and adolescent health and prevent youth migration to the street are needed for safe and beneficial deinstitutionalization to be implemented at scale

Harnessing the power of the grassroots to conduct public health research in sub-Saharan Africa: a case study from western Kenya in the adaptation of community-based participatory research (CBPR) approaches

Background: Community-based participatory research (CBPR) is a collaborative approach to research that involves the equitable participation of those affected by an issue. As the field of global public health grows, the potential of CBPR to build capacity and to engage communities in identification of problems and development and implementation of solutions in sub-Saharan Africa has yet to be fully tapped. The Orphaned and Separated Children’s Assessments Related to their Health and Well-Being (OSCAR) project is a longitudinal cohort of orphaned and non-orphaned children in Kenya. This paper will describe how CBPR approaches and principles can be incorporated and adapted into the study design and methods of a longitudinal epidemiological study in sub-Saharan Africa using this project as an example. Methods: The CBPR framework we used involves problem identification, feasibility and planning; implementation; and evaluation and dissemination. This case study will describe how we have engaged the community and adapted CBPR methods to OSCAR’s Health and Well-being Project’s corresponding to this framework in four phases: 1) community engagement, 2) sampling and recruitment, 3) retention, validation, and follow-up, and 4) analysis, interpretation and dissemination. Results: To date the study has enrolled 3130 orphaned and separated children, including children living in institutional environments, those living in extended family or other households in the community, and street-involved children and youth. Community engagement and participation was integral in refining the study design and identifying research questions that were impacting the community. Through the participation of village Chiefs and elders we were able to successfully identify eligible households and randomize the selection of participants. The on-going contribution of the community in the research process has been vital to participant retention and data validation while ensuring cultural and community relevance and equity in the research agenda. Conclusion: CBPR methods have the ability to enable and strengthen epidemiological and public health research in sub-Saharan Africa within the social, political, economic and cultural contexts of the diverse communities on the continent. This project demonstrates that adaptation of these methods is crucial to the successful implementation of a community-based project involving a highly vulnerable population

Reliability and validity of the RS14 in orphaned and separated adolescents and youths in western Kenya

Purpose: The 14-item Resilience Scale (RS14) is a tool designed to measure psychological resilience. It has been used effectively in diverse populations. However, its applicability is largely unknown for Sub-Saharan adolescent populations and completely unknown for orphaned and separated adolescents and youths (OSAY), a highly vulnerable population for whom resilience may be critical. This study assesses the RS14\u27s psychometric properties for OSAY in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. Methods: Survey responses from a representative sample of 1016 OSAY (51.3% female) aged 10-25 (mean = 16; SD = 3.5) living in institutional and home-based environments in Uasin Gishu County were analyzed. The RS14\u27s psychometric properties were assessed by examining internal consistency reliability, confirmatory factor analyses, and convergent validity using correlations between resilience and each of social support and depression. Sub-analyses were conducted by age and sex. Results: Resilience scores ranged from 14-98 (mean = 66; SD = 19) with no sex-based significant difference. Resilience was higher for those aged ≥18 (mean = 69; range = 14-98) versus age \u3c18 (mean = 65; range = 14-98). Internal consistency was good (Cronbach\u27s α = .90). Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a 1-factor solution, though the model fit was only moderate. Resilience was positively correlated with social support in all ages (.22; p \u3c .001) and negatively correlated with depression in individuals age \u3c18 (-.22; p \u3c .001). The relationship between resilience and depression in individuals age ≥18 was statistically significant only in females (-.17; p = .026). Conclusion: This study demonstrates reasonable evidence that the RS14 is both valid and reliable for measuring psychological resilience in the population of OSAY in western Keny