The Greek Merchant Marine: A Unique Combination of Nautical Skill and Commercial Savvy

The Greek-owned merchant fleet remains the world’s largest, and while plenty of histories have been written about this fleet, there is a definite absence in the historiography about why the Greeks’ relation to the sea is unique, and how this fleet came into existence. The author argues that the Greek merchant fleet is a successful hybridization of a commercial middleman minority ethos born out of conditions in the Ottoman Empire and post-independence Greece, combined with the shipping skills of a littoral people who invested in this expertise. To understand the how and why of the Greek merchant fleet, it is necessary to understand the political, economic, and geographic environment of the modern Greeks. This includes their insular, cohesive yet cosmopolitan ethno-religious identity rooted in the Ottoman Millet system, together with a nationalism nurtured in the commercial and shipping diaspora. Combined with a littoral homeland in the Aegean and Black Sea basins, and a quest for economic and political agency denied at home, resulted in a successful merchant shipping culture which survives to this day with the same key features. The thesis includes a section on the island of Hydra as a prototype nautical island with a key heritage pedigree; its converted merchant ships helped Greece to win her political independence, and the island is the site of the oldest nautical academy in the world. Key diaspora commercial sites wherein commercial skills and foreign ideas, particularly nationalism, developed, form a key part of the discussion. The transition of the commercial merchant into an emphasis on shipping as an “ethnic specialty” also receives due attention. Finally, the carnage of World War Two and the horrific loss of tonnage and lives starts the final chapter, which then covers the rebound of the Greek fleet due to the decision to purchase excess wartime US tonnage. Combined with the skills of the Greek mariner and the commercial agility and cohesiveness of the shipowner class, resulted in Greeks topping the ship-owning charts in 1970, where they remain to this day

Phylogenetic analysis of strains of Orf virus isolated from two outbreaks of the disease in sheep in Greece

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Although orf is endemic around the world, there are few descriptions of <it>Orf virus </it>strains and comparisons of these strains. We report the sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the partial B2L gene of <it>Orf virus </it>from two outbreaks of the disease in Greece. The first was an outbreak of genital form of the disease in a flock imported from France, whilst the second was an outbreak of the disease in the udder skin of ewes and around the mouth of lambs in an indigenous flock.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Phylogenetic analysis was performed on a part (498 bp) of the B2L gene of 35 <it>Parapoxvirus </it>isolates, including the two <it>Orf virus </it>isolates recovered from each of the two outbreaks in the present study. This analysis revealed that the maximum nucleotide and amino-acid variation amongst <it>Orf virus </it>strains worldwide (n = 33) was 8.1% and 9.6%, respectively. The homology of the nucleotide and amino-acid sequences between the two Greek isolates was 99.0% and 98.8%, respectively. The two Greek isolates clustered only with <it>Orf virus </it>strains.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>We suggest that there can be differences between strains based on their geographical origin. However, differences in the origin of strains or in the clinical presentation of the disease may not be associated with their pathogenicity. More work is required to determine if differing clinical presentations are linked to viral strain differences or if other factors, e.g., flock immunity, method of exposure or genetic susceptibility, are more important to determine the clinical presentation of the infection.</p

West Nile Virus: Basic Principles, Replication Mechanism, Immune Response and Important Genetic Determinants of Virulence

Medical genetic

Sex Differences Associated with Primary Biliary Cirrhosis

Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is a cholestatic liver disease of autoimmune origin, characterised by the destruction of small intrahepatic bile ducts. The disease has an unpredictable clinical course but may progress to fibrosis and cirrhosis. The diagnostic hallmark of PBC is the presence of disease-specific antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA), which are pathognomonic for the development of PBC. The disease overwhelmingly affects females, with some cases of male PBC being reported. The reasons underlying the low incidence of males with PBC are largely unknown. Epidemiological studies estimate that approximately 7–11% of PBC patients are males. There does not appear to be any histological, serological, or biochemical differences between male and female PBC, although the symptomatology may differ, with males being at higher risk of life-threatening complications such as gastrointestinal bleeding and hepatoma. Studies on X chromosome and sex hormones are of interest when studying the low preponderance of PBC in males; however, these studies are far from conclusive. This paper will critically analyze the literature surrounding PBC in males

Epstein-Barr Virus as a Trigger of Autoimmune Liver Diseases

The pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases includes a combination of genetic factors and environmental exposures including infectious agents. Infectious triggers are commonly indicated as being involved in the induction of autoimmune disease, with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) being implicated in several autoimmune disorders. EBV is appealing in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease, due to its high prevalence worldwide, its persistency throughout life in the host's B lymphocytes, and its ability to alter the host's immune response and to inhibit apoptosis. However, the evidence in support of EBV in the pathogenesis varies among diseases. Autoimmune liver diseases (AiLDs), including autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), have a potential causative link with EBV. The data surrounding EBV and AiLD are scarce. The lack of evidence surrounding EBV in AiLD may also be reflective of the rarity of these conditions. EBV infection has also been linked to other autoimmune conditions, which are often found to be concomitant with AiLD. This paper will critically examine the literature surrounding the link between EBV infection and AiLD development. The current evidence is far from being conclusive of the theory of a link between EBV and AiLD

Immunopathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis: an old wives' tale

Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is a cholestatic liver disease characterised by the autoimmune destruction of the small intrahepatic bile ducts. The disease has an unpredictable clinical course, but may progress to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Although medical treatment with urseodeoxycholic acid is largely successful, some patients may progress to liver failure requiring liver transplantation. PBC is characterised by the presence of disease specific anti-mitochondrial (AMA) antibodies, which are pathognomonic for PBC development. The disease demonstrates an overwhelming female preponderance and virtually all women with PBC present in middle age. The reasons for this are unknown; however several environmental and immunological factors may be involved. As the immune systems ages, it become less self tolerant, and mounts a weaker response to pathogens, possibly leading to cross reactivity or molecular mimicry. Some individuals display immunological changes which encourage the development of autoimmune disease. Risk factors implicated in PBC include recurrent urinary tract infection in females, as well as an increased prevalence of reproductive complications. These risk factors may work in concert with and possibly even accelerate, immune system ageing, contributing to PBC development. This review will examine the changes that occur in the immune system with ageing, paying particular attention to those changes which contribute to the development of autoimmune disease with increasing age. The review also discusses risk factors which may account for the increased female predominance of PBC, such as recurrent UTI and oestrogens