Untersuchung der lipidvermittelten Kristallisation der Ionenpumpen Bakteriorhodopsin und Halorhodopsin aus Halobacterium Salinarum

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Funktion ausgesuchter Aminosäuren in der archaealen Protonenpumpe Bacteriorhodopsin (BR) bei der Entstehung der zweidimensional kristallinen Purpurmembran (PM) in Halobacterium salinarum untersucht. Mittels gerichteter Mutagenese wurden aromatische Gruppen (W12, Y64, W80) gegen andere Reste ausgetauscht und die mutierten Gene homolog exprimiert. Die Tryptophanmutationen hatten dabei eine drastische Störung der PM-Bildung zur Folge, was auf wichtige Wechselwirkungen mit Lipidmolekülen schließen ließ. Insbesondere der Tryptophanrest W80, der mit dem Phythanylrest eines Glykolipids im Zentrum des Trimers wechselwirkt, zeigte seine essentielle Bedeutung für die PM-Bildung. Eine Abhängigkeit der PM-Bildung von der vorhandenen BR-Menge und Wachstumsphase konnte beim Wildtyp (WT) ausgeschlossen werden. Gefrierbruchelektronenmikroskopische Aufnahmen von ganzen Zellen zeigten bei der Mutante BR-W12I zahlreiche kleinere kristalline Bereiche auf der Oberfläche, während die Zellen mit BR-W80I nahezu keine geordneten Flächen aufwiesen. Mit Hilfe von Rotationsdiffusionsmessungen in Vesikeln und Elektronenspinresonanz(ESR)-Spektroskopie von spinmarkierten Cysteinmutanten wurde eine Zunahme der Mobilität der markierten Seitenketten und des mittleren Abstands der BR-Moleküle nachgewiesen. Lichtinduzierte Proteinvernetzung zeigte eine deutliche Auflockerung der kristallinen Struktur der mutierten BR-Moleküle in der Zellmembran, vor allem bei BR-W80I. Die Funktion von BR als Protonenpumpe wurde durch die Mutationen nicht beeinträchtigt, ebenso wurde keine durch die PM bewirkte höhere Photophosphorylierungsrate in den Zellen nachgewiesen, weshalb eine Begünstigung dieser Prozesse als Erklärung für die in vivo- Kristallisation ausgeschlossen wurde. Der Einfluß der Mutationen auf die spektroskopischen Eigenschaften war vergleichsweise gering. Jedoch bot die Abnahme der Lichtadaptationsfähigkeit und Zunahme des Anteils an inaktiven 9- und 11-cis-Retinalisomeren in lichtadaptierten Proben eine plausible Erklärung für die Bildung der kristallinen PM. Die Bildung des 9-cis-Isomeren führt zur Spaltung der Bindung zwischen Retinal und dem Protein. Dies wurde durch Belichtung von Zellen mit BR-W80I nachgewiesen, die innerhalb weniger Stunden ihren aktiven Chromophor in BR verloren. Demnach wird durch die kristalline Anordnung von BR die thermoreversible Isomerisierung von all-trans- zu 13-cis-Retinal so stark bevorzugt, dass die funktionelle Stabilität des Proteins gewährleistet ist. Dies erklärt den evolutionären Vorteil des kristallinen Form des BR als Purpurmembran. Das Vorkommen von zweidimensionalen Kristallen von Halorhodopsin (HR) mit hexagonaler Ordnung im Überexpressionsstamm D2 wurde mittels Gefrierbruchelektronenmikroskopie nachgewiesen. Eine ähnliche Anordnung wurde in 3D-Kristallen gefunden, die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durch Aufreinigung des Proteins und Kristallisation in kubischen Lipidphasen erhalten wurden (Kolbe et al., 2000). Damit wurde gezeigt, dass in den 3D-Kristallen von HR die gleiche Anordnung wie in der Zellmembran auftreten kann. Dies ließ auch auf eine physiologische Relevanz des Palmitatmoleküls schließen, das im Innern des HR-Trimers in der Kristallstruktur gefunden wurde. Die Affinität dieser Fettsäure zu HR wurde durch Markierung der Zellen mit 3H-Palmitat untersucht. Aus diesen Experimenten ging hervor, dass die Affinität der Palmitinsäure zu HR im Vergleich zu BR nicht höher ist. Eine BR-Mutante, die in einer nichtkristallinen Anordnung vorlag, wurde als Kontrolle verwendet. Es wurde ein Vektor konstruiert, der die Klonierung und homologe Expression von Genen für lösliche Proteine als Fusionsprotein am C-terminus von BR ermöglicht. Dies wurde mit dem Gen für das Ferredoxin von H. salinarum erfolgreich durchgeführt. Die rasche Aufreinigung der entstandenen PM mittels Zentrifugation in einem Saccharosedichtegradienten führte zu einer einfachen Abtrennung von einem Großteil anderer Proteine. Durch Einführung spezifischer Proteaseschnittstellen wurde auch eine Spaltung des Fusionsproteins ermöglicht. Die Koexpression löslicher Proteine mit BR in der PM bietet enorme Vorteile aufgrund der hohen Expressionsrate des Bacterioopsingens (bop), der Induzierbarkeit des bop-Promoters, die einfache Aufreinigung und der Möglichkeit zur Expression von Mutanten von essentiellen Genen ohne deren vorherige Deletion. Die Eignung dieses Systems für die einfache Isolierung von löslichen Proteinen als Fusionsprotein mit BR wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bestätigt

The novel Fh8 fusion technology for protein expression in Escherichia coli: a comparison with the traditionally used fusion systems

[Excerpt] The recombinant expression of natural proteins in Escherichia coli is limited by the lack of efficient methods for soluble production. Several efforts have been made to overcome this limitation, including the genetic fusion of highly soluble protein domains (fusion partners) to the target proteins. Among the available fusion partners, the E. coli maltose-binding protein (MBP), glutathione S-transferase (GST) and N-utilization substance A (NusA) are often used to enhance protein solubility. However, due to their large size, these partners can be problematic for structural and functional analyses, requiring their removal using specific proteases. The removal of the fusion partner is not always successful and the resulting cleaved target protein may also precipitate into insoluble aggregates.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Data for the co-expression and purification of human recombinant CaMKK2 in complex with calmodulin in Escherichia coli

AbstractCalcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) has been implicated in a range of conditions and pathologies from prostate to hepatic cancer. Here, we describe the expression in Escherichia coli and the purification protocol for the following constructs: full-length CaMKK2 in complex with CaM, CaMKK2 ‘apo’, CaMKK2 (165-501) in complex with CaM, and the CaMKK2 F267G mutant. The protocols described have been optimized for maximum yield and purity with minimal purification steps required and the proteins subsequently used to develop a fluorescence-based assay for drug binding to the kinase, “Using the fluorescent properties of STO-609 as a tool to assist structure-function analyses of recombinant CaMKK2” [1]

Using the fluorescent properties of STO-609 as a tool to assist structure-function analyses of recombinant CaMKK2

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) has been implicated in the regulation of metabolic activity in cancer and immune cells, and affects whole-body metabolism by regulating ghrelinsignalling in the hypothalamus. This has led to efforts to develop specific CaMKK2 inhibitors, and STO- 609 is the standardly used CaMKK2 inhibitor to date. We have developed a novel fluorescence-based assay by exploiting the intrinsic fluorescence properties of STO-609. Here, we report an in vitro binding constant of KD ~17 nM between STO-609 and purified CaMKK2 or CaMKK2:Calmodulin complex. Whereas high concentrations of ATP were able to displace STO-609 from the kinase, GTP was unable to achieve this confirming the specificity of this association. Recent structural studies on the kinase domain of CaMKK2 had implicated a number of amino acids involved in the binding of STO-609. Our fluorescent assay enabled us to confirm that Phe267 is critically important for this association since mutation of this residue to a glycine abolished the binding of STO-609. An ATP replacement assay, as well as the mutation of the ‘gatekeeper’ amino acid Phe267Gly, confirmed the specificity of the assay and once more confirmed the strong binding of STO-609 to the kinase. In further characterising the purified kinase and kinasecalmodulin complex we identified a number of phosphorylation sites some of which corroborated previously reported CaMKK2 phosphorylation and some of which, particularly in the activation segment, were novel phosphorylation events. In conclusion, the intrinsic fluorescent properties of STO-609 provide a great opportunity to utilise this drug to label the ATP-binding pocket and probe the impact of mutations and other regulatory modifications and interactions on the pocket. It is however clear that the number of phosphorylation sites on CaMKK2 will pose a challenge in studying the impact of phosphorylation on the pocket unless the field can develop approaches to control the spectrum of modifications that occur during recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli.</p

A genome scan for milk production traits in dairy goats reveals two new mutations in <i>Dgat1</i> reducing milk fat content

The quantity of milk and milk fat and proteins are particularly important traits in dairy livestock. However, little is known about the regions of the genome that influence these traits in goats. We conducted a genome wide association study in French goats and identified 109 regions associated with dairy traits. For a major region on chromosome 14 closely associated with fat content, the Diacylglycerol O-Acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) gene turned out to be a functional and positional candidate gene. The caprine reference sequence of this gene was completed and 29 polymorphisms were found in the gene sequence, including two novel exonic mutations: R251L and R396W, leading to substitutions in the protein sequence. The R251L mutation was found in the Saanen breed at a frequency of 3.5% and the R396W mutation both in the Saanen and Alpine breeds at a frequencies of 13% and 7% respectively. The R396W mutation explained 46% of the genetic variance of the trait, and the R251L mutation 6%. Both mutations were associated with a notable decrease in milk fat content. Their causality was then demonstrated by a functional test. These results provide new knowledge on the genetic basis of milk synthesis and will help improve the management of the French dairy goat breeding program

Author Correction:A genome scan for milk production traits in dairy goats reveals two new mutations in Dgat1 reducing milk fat content (Scientific Reports DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02052-0)

A correction to this article has been published and is linked from the HTML and PDF versions of this paper. The error has not been fixed in the pape

The novel Fh8 and H fusion partners for soluble protein expression in Escherichia coli : a comparison with the traditional gene fusion technology

The Escherichia coli host system is an advantageous choice for simple and inexpensive recombinant protein production but it still presents bottlenecks at expressing soluble proteins from other organisms. Several efforts have been taken to overcome E. coli limitations, including the use of fusion partners that improve protein expression and solubility. New fusion technologies are emerging to complement the traditional solutions. This work evaluates two novel fusion partners, the Fh8 tag (8 kDa) and the H tag (1 kDa), as solubility enhancing tags in E. coli and their comparison to commonly used fusion partners. A broad range comparison was conducted in a small-scale screening and subsequently scaled-up. Six difficult-to-express target proteins (RVS167, SPO14, YPK1, YPK2, Frutalin and CP12) were fused to eight fusion tags (His, Trx, GST, MBP, NusA, SUMO, H and Fh8). The resulting protein expression and solubility levels were evaluated by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis before and after protein purification and after tag removal. The Fh8 partner improved protein expression and solubility as the well-known Trx, NusA or MBP fusion partners. The H partner did not function as a solubility tag. Cleaved proteins from Fh8 fusions were soluble and obtained in similar or higher amounts than proteins from the cleavage of other partners as Trx, NusA or MBP. The Fh8 fusion tag therefore acts as an effective solubility enhancer, and its low molecular weight potentially gives it an advantage over larger solubility tags by offering a more reliable assessment of the target protein solubility when expressed as a fusion protein.The financial support of the EMBL Heidelberg, Germany and Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal, is acknowledged: the fellowship SFRH/BD/46482/2008 to Sofia J. Costa and the project PTDC/CVT/103081/2008. The authors wish to acknowledge Anne-Claude Gavin for providing four of the constructs for this study (RVS167, SPO14, YPK1, and YPK2) and Emmanuel Poilpre for the experimental help (both from the EMBL Heidelberg, Germany)

Staining of Proteins in Gels with Coomassie G-250 without Organic Solvent and Acetic Acid

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents (Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol) and acetic acid are used for fixation, staining and destaining of proteins in a gel after SDS-PAGE. To speed up the procedure, heating the staining solution in the microwave oven for a short time is frequently used. This usually results in evaporation of toxic or hazardous Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol and a strong smell of acetic acid in the lab which should be avoided due to safety considerations. In a protocol originally published in two patent applications by E.M. Wondrak (US2001046709 (A1), US6319720 (B1)), an alternative composition of the staining solution is described in which no organic solvent or acid is used. The CBB is dissolved in bidistilled water (60-80mg of CBB G-250 per liter) and 35 mM HCl is added as the only other compound in the staining solution. The CBB staning of the gel is done after SDS-PAGE and thorough washing of the gel in bidistilled water. By heating the gel during the washing and staining steps, the process can be finished faster and no toxic or hazardous compunds are evaporating. The staining of proteins occurs already within 1 minute after heating the gel in staining solution and is fully developed after 15-30 min with a slightly blue background that is destained completely by prolonged washing of the stained gel in bidistilled water, without affecting the stained protein bands