The Gambia : Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis in the Gambia This brief consists of some general information about Gambia, demographic information, the effects of tuberculosis in the country including the challenges brought forth by the disease, and some personal suggestions on the matter. From the general information on Gambia, we learn the location, political structure as well as major internal and external challenges faced by the country. Tuberculosis is one of the country’s major internal challenges in addition to its environmental and economic issues. Under the demographic information we get a broader idea of the Gambia people by looking at population demographic such as birth and death rate and religion distribution as well as the major ethnic groups. Through this brief we learn that tuberculosis is one of major infectious diseases that has caused a great deal of death and unnecessary pain in the Gambia. The document contains statistical data which displays the gravity of the issue. Additionally, the brief references studies conducted in Gambia regarding the medical issue. We also learn the way of identification as well as the challenges the country faces in terms of intervention. The personal suggestions consist of possible measures that the government could take in order to prevent and reduce the effect of tuberculosis on the Gambian people

Existing Dilemma of the Impact of Eucalyptus Species on Crop Yield and Soil Nutrients in Ethiopia: Review Paper

Eucalyptus is an ever green fast-growing tree species which is introduced in Ethiopia during the regime of Emperor Menelik II to solve the scarcity of wood products especially for fuel wood and construction materials. Eucalyptus is widely planted in Ethiopia due to the economic benefit and special nature of the species such as, it needs minimum care, fast growing, good for fuel and construction material and easily propagation. However, there is dilemma the impact of Eucalyptus on crop yield and soil nutrients. Therefore, this review focused on the influence of eucalyptus species on crop productivity and soil nutrients. Several studies reported that planting of Eucalyptus species nearby or alongside of crop growing areas reduces the productivity of crops by up taking more nutrients and water as compared to neighbouring species whereas, another studies reported that higher crop yield and soil nutrients were obtained from crops growing in the clear-felling eucalyptus stands as compared to continuous cultivated crop lands. In conclusion, Eucalyptus has a negative and positive influence on soil nutrients and crop yield depends on the management planning and tending operation of the species. Therefore, to reduce the adverse effect of eucalyptus giving more attention on its management is very vital. Keywords: wood products, fast growing, economic benefit, fuel wood DOI: 10.7176/JNSR/11-17-01 Publication date:September 30th 202

Determinants of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Marketed Surplus Among Smallholder Farmers in Humbo and Damot Gale Woredas, Southern Ethiopia

This research was aimed to study the chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) marketed surplus among smallholder farmers in the Humbo and Damot Gale Woredas. A multi-stage sampling technique was used in order to determine the sample respondents. By using simple random sampling technique four sample Kebeles were selected. Cross sectional data were collected from 182 farm households who produced chickpea in 2015/16 production season. Primary data were collected from sample households using structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and econometric model were employed to analyze the data. To identify determinants of marketed surplus of chickpea, Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model was employed. The study suggest interventions such as intensification strategies which increase yields through proper management and use of inputs, rural infrastructure improvement increases the likelihood of market orientation and marketed surplus of chickpea. Keywords:  Chickpea, Marketed surplus, Household, South Ethiopi

Determinants of export performance in Ethiopia: a VAR model analysis

Despite encouraging improvements in recent decades, Ethiopia's export performance has typically been portrayed as poor compared with other sub -Saharan African countries. The major objective of this paper is to investigate factors that determine the export performance of the country by using an econometric model for the period 1970/71- 2010/11. This study tried to review the export performance; trends and share of different export items and examine the long run and short run determinants of export performance of Ethiopia. The long run and short run estimates are investigated using Johansson cointegration and Vector Error Correction approaches. The data is collected from NBE (2011), EEA statistical data base CD-ROM (2010), and WB and WDI (2011). The findings of the study revealed that in the long run export performance has found to be positively influenced by real effective exchange rate, openness, RGDP of home country, infrastructural development and private credit as a ratio of GDP (financial development). The RGDP of trading partner has found to be statistically insignificant. Hence, the long run elasticities of export performance with respect to real effective exchange rate, openness, RGDP of home country, infrastructural development and private credit as a ratio ofGDP (financial development) are 0.7, 0.54, 1.7, 0.3 and 0.44 respectively. In the short run only last year openness has directly involved in enhancing export performance of current year. Maintaining high and sustainable economic growth, improvements in infrastructural facilities and credit access, and maintaining conducive and stable exchange rate policies as well as working to reduce trade restriction mechanism should due emphasis so as to improve Ethiopia's export performance. Key words: Ethiopia, Export Performance, Financial development, infrastructural development, Johansson co-integration, Openness, Real effective exchange rate, RGDP of home country, RGDP of trading partner, Vector Error Correction.Jimma Universit

Review on Existing Dilemma of the Impact of Eucalyptus Species on Crop Yield and Soil Nutrients in Ethiopia

Eucalyptus is an ever green fast-growing tree species which is introduced in Ethiopia during the regime of Emperor Menelik II to solve the scarcity of wood products especially for fuel wood and construction materials. Eucalyptus is widely planted in Ethiopia due to the economic benefit and special nature of the species such as, it needs minimum care, fast growing, good for fuel and construction material and easily propagation. However, there is dilemma the impact of Eucalyptus on crop yield and soil nutrients. Therefore, this review focused on the influence of eucalyptus species on crop productivity and soil nutrients. Several studies reported that planting of Eucalyptus species nearby or alongside of crop growing areas reduces the productivity of crops by up taking more nutrients and water as compared to neighbouring species whereas, another studies reported that higher crop yield and soil nutrients were obtained from crops growing in the clear-felling eucalyptus stands as compared to continuous cultivated crop lands. In conclusion, Eucalyptus has a negative and positive influence on soil nutrients and crop yield depends on the management planning and tending operation of the species. Therefore, to reduce the adverse effect of eucalyptus giving more attention on its management is very vital. Keywords: wood products, fast growing, economic benefit, fuel wood DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/11-7-01 Publication date: April 30th 202

Review on the Role of Parkland Agro Forestry in Agricultural Landscapes of West Africa and Lessons Draw for East Africa

Parkland agroforestry practice can provide different environmental services, especially for biodiversity conservation. This practice gets big attention with agroforestry and conservation scientists. The main purpose of this paper was to explore what are the main ecosystems services and livelihood strategy of parkland agroforestry provide to farming communities in West Africa region and the main challenges faced in conservation and management of the diversity of these trees in agricultural landscapes. What are the best practices and concerns towards parkland agroforestry in West African countries have and what lessons can be drawn to their counterparts in East African farming communities.The contributions and challenges of parkland agroforestry practices were described by different scholars. In West Africa`s region parklands as anthropogenic landscapes with a rational land use system developed by farmers over many generations and farmers select and protect tree species to diversify production for subsistence and income as well as to minimize environmental risks related to climatic variability. The contribution to the conservation of biodiversity through in situ conservation of tree species on farm, reduction of pressure on remnant forests, and the provision of suitable habitat for a number of plants and animal species on farmlands. Besides, planted trees and shrubs contribute significantly to farmers’ livelihoods by supplying food, fodder, wood and medicine. The main challenges are poor survival rate of seedlings due to moisture stress and browsing, careless field clearing and weeding, and the presence of seedlings seemed to be determined mainly by moisture availability and seed availability. In conclusion parkland in West Africa covers wide part of the agricultural landscapes providing enormous services and products to the farming communities of the region. Then the best practices accumulated in West Africa have to be transfered to East Africa through linking the agroforestry expertes and the farmers of the two regions. Keywords: Biodiversity Consrvation, Ecosystem Service and Antropogenic landscapes DOI: 10.7176/JNSR/9-13-05 Publication date:July 31st 201

Assessment of Marketing Mix Strategies of the Hawassa Millennium Pepsi-Cola Plant

The study deals with assessment of marketing mix of the MOHA soft drinks industry share company in Hawassa millennium Pepsi-Cola plant. Both primary and secondary data have been employed. Primary data obtained through interview and questionnaires, distributed to marketing managers and employees/staffs/ of the marketing department. The findings showed that the factory provides five types of products namely Pepsi Cola, Mirinda Orange, 7-Up, Mirinda Tonic, and Mirinda Apple. The plant has no any written pricing policy as a result the prices of the products are depends on different factors like; transportation charges, Competitors’ costs, Economic factors, Gross profit costs, Overhead costs, Net profit, direct costs. The findings also shows that Hawassa millennium Pepsi-cola plant promotes its products by means of erecting artistic notice board in towns, at main public squares, sight-catching places, major outlets and inlets, public service stations and on vehicles and contributing to popular events by means of sponsoring various exhibitions etc. The recommendation made was to alleviate the problems in the distribution of the products (to fill the gap between the imbalances of demand and supply requirements), the factory must choose distributors that reach its customers most effectively and other intermediaries that add value to the distributive process. The factory has to do more to expand its local market coverage and increase its market share by selling the products even in rural areas. Keywords: Marketing, Mix Strategy, Hawasa Millenium, Pepsi-Coca Plant DOI: 10.7176/JMCR/52-0

Prescription Pattern of Injection at Out Patient Pharmacy Department of Adama Hospital Medical College, Adama,

Introduction: Injection is an infusion method of putting drugs or fluids in to the body with a hollow needle and a syringe. The use of injection for treatment accompanied with variety of disadvantages including sepsis at administration, risk of tissue toxicity, costly difficulties in correcting the error.  Injections are very expensive compared to other dosage forms and require trained personnel for administration. Moreover, unhygienic use of injections can increase the risk of transmission of potentially serious pathogens, such as hepatitis, HIV/AIDS, and blood-borne diseases. It is estimated by the WHO that about 16 billion injections are undertaken in developing countries annually and are often irrationally used. Objective: The present study was aimed to assess the prescription pattern of injections in Adama Hospital Medical College. Method: Hospital based Prospective cross sectional study was done to assess prescription pattern of injections in outpatient pharmacy of AHMC. All Prescription cards from March 24, 2015 to May 24, 2015 were taken and reviewed using pre-tested data collection format. Finally data was edited, coded, tallied and cleaned. Descriptive statistics was computed. Result: On review of 500 prescription papers, 600 injections were prescribed. The percentage of prescriptions containing name of the patient, sex, age, address, date and card number were 490 (98%), 395 (79%), 405 (81%), 250 (50%), 300 (60%) and 480 (96%) respectively. The most commonly prescribed therapeutic class was inject able antibiotics 154 (25%), anti pains 120 (20%) and diuretics 66 (11%). Injections prescribed with over, under and optimum dose were 15 (2.5%), 9 (1.5%), 576(96%), respectively. About 18 (3%), 6 (1%) and 2 (0.3%) of antibiotics were prescribed by incorrect frequency, short and extended duration of administration, respectively. Only on 190 (38%), 65 (13%) and 480 (96%) of prescription papers were names, qualification and signature of the prescribers specified respectively. Conclusion: There was rational use of injections in the hospital though there are some problems that have to be considered. Key Terms: Injection medicine, prescribing pattern, prescribers, prescription, Adama

Child and maternal malnutrition: A cohort study from a drought-prone area in southern Ethiopia

Bakgrunn: I Etiopia er underernæring hos barn og mødre fortsatt store folkehelseproblemer, spesielt i landlige og fattige husholdninger. Landet er langt fra å nå de globale ernæringsmålene, selv om ernæringspolitikk og ulike intervensjonsprogrammer er implementert. Den mulige årsaken til at tidligere intervensjoner ikke nådde målet kan være utilstrekkelig forståelse for de lokale kontekstene. For å løse dette problemet, er det avgjørende å forstå husholdningsegenskaper, sesongmessige mønstre av matusikkerhet i husholdninger og kostholdsmangfold i forhold til barns og mødres underernæring, ved å bruke en kohortstudie i et tørkeutsatt område. Videre kan evaluering av romlig gruppering av underernæring etter kontroll for kjente risikofaktorer i den lokale konteksten med høy befolkningsvekst hjelpe til med å utforme effektive og effektive underernæringstiltak for tørkerammede områder. Generelt mål: Det overordnede målet med studien var å forbedre vår forståelse av barns og mødres underernæring gjennom en kohortstudie i sammenheng med landlige tørkeutsatte områder i Sør-Etiopia. De spesifikke målene var: 1) For å evaluere sesongmessige mønstre av matusikkerhet i husholdninger, kostholdsmangfold og husholdningsegenskaper i forhold til sløsing og stunting blant barn i husholdninger fulgt i ett år (artikkel I); 2) For å bestemme effektene av husholdningsegenskaper og sesongvariasjoner i matusikkerhet og matmangfold på mødres underernæring og å vurdere om mødres underernæring er assosiert med underernæring hos barn (artikkel II); 3) Å undersøke om barns forkrøpling og mødres underernæring var romlig gruppert, etter å ha kontrollert for kjente risikofaktorer for underernæring blant barn og deres mødre (artikkel III). Metoder: Alle tre studiene rapportert i denne oppgaven er en del av en kohortdesignstudie som ble utført i Boricha-distriktet i det sørlige Etiopia. Vi samlet inn data fire ganger i løpet av et år: mars 2017, juni 2017, september 2017 og desember 2017. Vi målte barnets og mors høyde og vekt, og omkrets på midten av overarmen. Vi målte sesongvariasjon av matusikkerhet i husholdninger ved å bruke det validerte verktøyet til Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) og husholdningens kostholdsmangfold ved å bruke verktøyet Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). Vi målte formuesstatus og sosiodemografiske kjennetegn ved husholdningene. Mors underernæring ble identifisert ved å bruke lav omkrets på midten av overarmen og lav kroppsmasseindeks. En kohort på 897 husstander med 935 barn, i alderen 6 til 47 måneder, ble fulgt opp i ett år for å måle mønstrene og determinantene for forkrøpning av barn og barnesløseri (artikkel I). De samme husholdningene med 892 biologiske mødre ble også fulgt opp i samme periode for å bestemme risikofaktorene for mødres underernæring i kohortstudien (Paper II). En multi-level mixed-effect modell ble brukt for å måle risikofaktorene for sløsing av barn og stunting av barn (Paper I), og bestemme risikofaktorene for mors underernæring (Paper II). Logistisk regresjonsmodell med å erklære data som tidsserier ble brukt for å identifisere mulige risikofaktorer for romlig gruppering av barns stunting og mødres underernæring (artikkel III). I mellomtiden brukte Paper III de identifiserte risikofaktorene fra Paper I og II for å evaluere romlig gruppering av underernæring, etter å ha kontrollert de kjente risikofaktorene. I Paper III brukte vi Kulldorfs romlige skanningsstatistikk for å evaluere om barns stunting og mødres underernæring var romlig gruppert i tørkeutsatte områder, etter å ha kontrollert for kjente risikofaktorer for barns og mødres underernæring. Vi gjennomførte kartlegging og visualisering av den romlige fordelingen av barns stunting og mødres underernæring (Paper III). Resultater: I Paper I viste kohortstudien vår at husholdningskarakteristikker som fattigdom, utdanning og husholdningens matusikkerhet og kostholdsmangfold var assosiert med sløsing eller stunting blant små barn. Den høyeste forekomsten av svinn skjedde i samme sesong som den høyeste forekomsten av matusikkerhet. Stunting skjedde imidlertid noen måneder etter perioden med høyest forekomst av matusikkerhet. I Paper II var mors underernæring høyere i førhøstsesongen, da matusikkerheten var høyest. Dessuten hadde husholdninger med underernærte mødre høyere underernæringsrater for barn. I Paper III fant vi at romlig gruppering av barns forkrøbling og mødres underernæring blant husholdninger i tørkeutsatte områder kan skyldes den ikke-tilfeldige fordelingen av kjente risikofaktorer for barns stunting og mødres underernæring, som fattigdom og mors egenskaper. Konklusjoner: Våre funn fra det tørkeutsatte distriktet i det sørlige Etiopia kobler sesongvariasjoner av husholdningenes matusikkerhet og kostholdsmangfold, som indikatorer på landbruksproduksjon, med sløsing av barn, svemming av barn og mødres underernæring. Stunting hos barn og mors underernæring viste ikke romlig variasjon etter at vi kontrollerte for kjente risikofaktorer; som antydet at romlig klynging før kontroll av kjente risikofaktorer for underernæring kan skyldes den ikke-tilfeldige fordelingen av individuelle og husholdningsegenskaper. Dette skjedde under den lokale konteksten av økologisk nedbrytning, høyt befolkningspress og gjentatte tørkeperioder i et landlig bondesamfunn i Sør-Etiopia. Disse funnene kan være nyttige for å utforme effektive og effektive underernæringstiltak i områder som er berørt med tilbakevendende tørke.Background: In Ethiopia, child and maternal malnutrition continue to be major public health problems, especially in rural and poor households. The country is far from reaching the global nutrition targets, even though nutritional policies and various interventional programs have been implemented. The possible reason why previous interventions did not achieve the target could be insufficient understanding about the local contexts. To address this issue, it is crucial to understand household characteristics, seasonal patterns of household food insecurity and dietary diversity in relation to child and maternal malnutrition, using a cohort study in a drought-prone area. Moreover, evaluating spatial clustering of malnutrition after controlling for the known risk factors in the local context of high population growth could aid in designing efficient and effective malnutrition interventions for drought-affected areas. General Objective: The overall aim of the study was to improve our understanding about child and maternal malnutrition through a cohort study in the context of rural drought-prone areas of southern Ethiopia. The specific objectives were: 1) To evaluate seasonal patterns of household food insecurity, dietary diversity, and household characteristics in relation to wasting and stunting among children in households followed for one year (Paper I); 2) To determine the effects of household characteristics and seasonal variations in food insecurity and food diversity on maternal malnutrition and to assess whether maternal malnutrition is associated with child malnutrition (Paper II); 3) To examine whether child stunting and maternal malnutrition were spatially clustered, after controlling for known risk factors for malnutrition among children and their mothers (Paper III). Methods: All three studies reported in this thesis are part of a cohort design study that was conducted in the Boricha district of southern Ethiopia. We collected data four times in a year: March 2017, June 2017, September 2017, and December 2017. We measured child and maternal height and weight, and mid-upper arm circumference. We measured seasonal variation of household food insecurity using the validated tool of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and household dietary diversity using the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) tool. We measured wealth status and socio-demographic characteristics of the households. Maternal malnutrition was identified using low maternal mid-upper arm circumference and low body mass index. A cohort of 897 households with 935 children, aged between 6 and 47 months, were followed up for one year to measure the patterns and determinants of child stunting and child wasting (Paper I). The same households with 892 biological mothers were also followed up for the same period to determine the risk factors for maternal malnutrition in the cohort study (Paper II). A multilevel mixed-effect model was used to measure the risk factors for child wasting and child stunting (Paper I), and determine the risk factors for maternal malnutrition (Paper II). Logistic regression model with declaring data to be time-series was employed to identify possible risk factors for spatial clustering of child stunting and maternal malnutrition (Paper III). Meanwhile, Paper III used the identified risk factors from Papers I and II to evaluate spatial clustering of malnutrition, after controlling the known risk factors. In Paper III, we employed Kulldorf’s spatial scan statistics to evaluate whether child stunting and maternal malnutrition were spatially clustered in drought-prone areas, after controlling for known risk factors for child and maternal malnutrition. We carried out mapping and visualization of the spatial distribution of child stunting and maternal malnutrition (Paper III). Results: In Paper I, our cohort study demonstrated that household characteristics such as poverty, education and the household’s food insecurity and dietary diversity were associated with wasting or stunting among young children. The highest prevalence of wasting occurred in the same season as the highest prevalence of food insecurity. However, stunting occurred some months after the period with the highest prevalence of food insecurity. In Paper II, the maternal malnutrition was higher in the pre-harvest season, when food insecurity was highest. Moreover, households with malnourished mothers had higher child malnutrition rates. In Paper III, we found that spatial clustering of child stunting and maternal malnutrition among households of drought-prone area could be due to the non-random distribution of known risk factors for child stunting and maternal malnutrition, such as poverty, and maternal characteristics. Conclusions: Our findings from the drought-prone district of southern Ethiopia links seasonal variation of household food insecurity and dietary diversity, as indicators of agricultural production, with child wasting, child stunting and maternal malnutrition. The child stunting and maternal malnutrition did not demonstrate spatial variation after we controlled for known risk factors; that implied that spatial clustering before controlling known risk factors for malnutrition could be due the non-random distribution of individual and household characteristics. This occurred under the local context of ecological degradation, high population pressure, and repeated droughts in a rural farming community of southern Ethiopia. These findings could be helpful for designing efficient and effective malnutrition interventions in areas affected with recurrent drought.Doktorgradsavhandlin

Service Quality and Customers’ Satisfaction in Addis Ababa Light Rail Transit: Context, Relationships and Effect

The issue of urban mass transportation is becoming the center of cites sustainable development and revitalization strategies. Hence, conducting a scientific inquiry into customers’ satisfaction and service quality in urban light rail transport is vital to make policies and intervention measures instrumental and valid. Thus, the aim of this study is to assess service quality and customer satisfaction in urban transport service delivery with particular reference to Addis Ababa Light Rail Transit. To this end, dimensions as adopted in modified SERVPERF model have been utilized as measurement constructs and a quantitative approach has been employed. The study is a descriptive and explanatory type involving the analysis of data collected through questionnaire from passengers of the light Rail Transit. In order to analyze background information of respondents and their perception on service quality descriptive statistics is applied. Besides, the study has utilized correlation and regression analysis. The finding of the study shows that the customers are moderately satisfied with assurance and responsiveness while they are dissatisfied on affordability, tangibility, reliability and empathy. The correlation analysis of service quality dimensions (tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and affordability) shows, they all are positively correlated to overall service quality. Besides, all service quality dimensions have a significant effect on customer satisfaction implying that the higher the quality of service, the higher is the level of customers’ satisfaction. In conclusion, it is clear that Addis Ababa light rail transit can improve customers’ satisfaction by working on quality. Keywords: services, quality, customer satisfaction, light rail and SERVPREF DOI: 10.7176/EJBM/13-5-02 Publication date:March 31st 202