Defining the Mechanisms of B Cell Mediated Autoimmune Disease

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) afflicts more than 1.5 million individuals in the United States with very limited and debilitating therapeutic options. It is hypothesized that in SLE, peripheral B cell tolerance is breached by inappropriate survival of autoreactive cells. To define the role of B cells and B cell tolerance in the initiation and progression of autoimmune disease we created a mouse model wherein the gene encoding Bim is selectively deleted in B cells (BBimfl/fl). We show B cells can initiate autoimmune pathogenesis phenotypically like SLE. Autoimmunity was ameliorated upon deletion of key B cell signaling protein, Bruton&rsquo;s tyrosine kinase (Btk). Our results suggest that Bim-mediated apoptosis suppresses and B cell tyrosine kinase signaling promotes B cell-mediated autoimmunity.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;We further demonstrate that heightened inflammation and dysregulated apoptosis can synergize in SLE pathogenesis. To that end, we elucidated the function of a recently discovered potential negative regulator of NF-kB, ZFAND6, using Zfand6-/- mice. Zfand6-/- have increased inflammation basally and upon stimulation with endosomal TLR agonist. Zfand6-/- mice were bred to BBimfl/fl resulting in the generation of BBimfl/fl Zfand6-/-. mice. &nbsp;The&nbsp;autoimmune manifestations&nbsp;observed in BBimfl/fl were&nbsp;accelerated and exacerbated&nbsp;in BBimfl/fl Zfand6-/- mice; B and T cells were increased particularly expanding germinal center (GC) B cells and T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and Foxp3+&nbsp;effector Treg cells. Autoantibodies&nbsp;emerged at a much younger age and showed greater intensity. Taken together these findings indicate that both innate cell-mediated inflammation and T cell co-stimulation contribute to B cell-initiated autoimmunity.</p

CADM1 is essential for KSHV-encoded vGPCR-and vFLIP-mediated chronic NF-κB activation

Approximately 12% of all human cancers worldwide are caused by infections with oncogenic viruses. Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus/human herpesvirus 8 (KSHV/HHV8) is one of the oncogenic viruses responsible for human cancers, including Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL), and the lymphoproliferative disorder multicentric Castleman’s disease (MCD). Chronic inflammation mediated by KSHV infection plays a decisive role in the development and survival of these cancers. NF-κB, a family of transcription factors regulating inflammation, cell survival, and proliferation, is persistently activated in KSHV-infected cells. The KSHV latent and lytic expressing oncogenes involved in NF-κB activation are vFLIP/K13 and vGPCR, respectively. However, the mechanisms by which NF-κB is activated by vFLIP and vGPCR are poorly understood. In this study, we have found that a host molecule, Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 (CADM1), is robustly upregulated in KSHV-infected PBMCs and KSHV-associated PEL cells. Further investigation determined that both vFLIP and vGPCR interacted with CADM1. The PDZ binding motif localized at the carboxyl terminus of CADM1 is essential for both vGPCR and vFLIP to maintain chronic NF-κB activation. Membrane lipid raft associated CADM1 interaction with vFLIP is critical for the initiation of IKK kinase complex and NF-κB activation in the PEL cells. In addition, CADM1 played essential roles in the survival of KSHV-associated PEL cells. These data indicate that CADM1 plays key roles in the activation of NF-κB pathways during latent and lytic phases of the KSHV life cycle and the survival of KSHV-infected cells

RNA Sequence Context Effects Measured In&nbsp;Vitro Predict In&nbsp;Vivo Protein Binding and Regulation

Many RNA binding proteins (RBPs) bind specific RNA sequence motifs, but only a small fraction (∼15%-40%) of RBP motif occurrences are occupied in&nbsp;vivo. To determine which contextual features discriminate between bound and unbound motifs, we performed an in&nbsp;vitro binding assay using 12,000 mouse RNA sequences with the RBPs MBNL1 and RBFOX2. Surprisingly, the strength of binding to motif occurrences in&nbsp;vitro was significantly correlated with in&nbsp;vivo binding, developmental regulation, and evolutionary age of alternative splicing. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that the primary context effect that affects binding in&nbsp;vitro and in&nbsp;vivo is RNA secondary structure. Large-scale combinatorial mutagenesis of unfavorable sequence contexts revealed a consistent pattern whereby mutations that increased motif accessibility improved protein binding and regulatory activity. Our results indicate widespread inhibition of motif binding by local RNA secondary structure and suggest that mutations that alter sequence context commonly affect RBP binding and regulation

Defining the mechanisms of B cell initiated autoimmune disease

Abstract Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) afflicts more than 1.5 million individuals in the United States with very limited and debilitating therapeutic options. The etiology of the disease remains unclear. It is hypothesized that in SLE, peripheral B cell tolerance is breached by inappropriate survival of autoreactive cells. Consistently, overexpression of B cell activating factor (BAFF), a key regulator of B cell survival can rescue autoreactive B cells and contribute to autoimmune disease. BAFF counters apoptosis in part through decreasing BH3-only pro-apoptotic protein Bim. Notably, both BAFF and Bim are physiological regulators of B cell tolerance. Therefore, to define the role of B cells and B cell tolerance in the initiation and progression of autoimmune disease we created a mouse model wherein gene encoding Bim is selectively deleted in B cells (B.Bimf/f). Initial analyses of these mice suggest that B cells can initiate an autoimmune pathogenesis phenotypically similar to SLE, with mice exhibiting splenomegaly and increased CD21loCD23lo B cells. Given that persistent activity of NF-kB in B cells can also result in autoimmune diseases, we are now investigating whether the persistent NF-kB and dysregulated apoptosis can synergize in SLE pathogenesis. To that end, we have crossed B.Bimf/f mice with a mouse line that lacks a recently discovered potential negative regulator of NF-kB, ZFAND6 (B.Bimf/f x ZfanD6−/−). Preliminary findings suggest that the compound mutant mice display exacerbated autoimmune symptoms with higher incidence of splenomegaly and kidney pathology. These preliminary results suggest that a breach in tolerance (B.Bimf/f ) and persistent NF-kB activity cooperate in the initiation and severity of SLE pathogenesis

Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement and BAFF responsive maturation defines a novel B cell population undergoing extra-BM development

Abstract Transitional type-1 (T1) cells are peripheral immature B cells known to populate the spleen (spl) after completing their BCR assembly in the bone marrow (BM). To advance the understanding of splenic T1 (CD19posCD24hiCD21neg) B cells, we addressed the heterogeneity and biology of these cells using flow cytometry combined with genetically modified mice. Most recent emigrant T1 cells were selected by excluding CD23pos and including CD93high (AA4.1) B cells termed T12123DN. Transcriptomic analysis identified RAG1 and 2 as signature genes for this B cell population. Further separation of T12123DN cells based on surface IgM expression revealed a previously undescribed cell subset with undetectable cell surface IgM (-IgMneg). The spl-IgMneg subsets expresses RAG1/2 and actively undergoes Igk gene rearrangement at levels comparable to BM pre-B cells. Upon in vitro exposure to BAFF or transplantation into immunodeficient hosts, spl-IgMneg cells can give rise to fully mature IgMposIgDpos B cells. Furthermore, BAFF-R and NF-kB pathways are required for their efficient maturation. Our findings suggest that the spl-T1 population encompasses a subset of B cells that resemble but are distinct from the developing B cells in the BM. These spl-IgMneg B cells may represent receptor editing B cells, and/or precursor B cells undergoing BCR assembly and selection in the periphery, possibly providing an opportunity for tolerance induction to tissue restricted self-antigens and microbiota-derived antigens

CADM1 is essential for KSHV-encoded vGPCR-and vFLIP-mediated chronic NF-κB activation

<div><p>Approximately 12% of all human cancers worldwide are caused by infections with oncogenic viruses. Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus/human herpesvirus 8 (KSHV/HHV8) is one of the oncogenic viruses responsible for human cancers, including Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL), and the lymphoproliferative disorder multicentric Castleman’s disease (MCD). Chronic inflammation mediated by KSHV infection plays a decisive role in the development and survival of these cancers. NF-κB, a family of transcription factors regulating inflammation, cell survival, and proliferation, is persistently activated in KSHV-infected cells. The KSHV latent and lytic expressing oncogenes involved in NF-κB activation are vFLIP/K13 and vGPCR, respectively. However, the mechanisms by which NF-κB is activated by vFLIP and vGPCR are poorly understood. In this study, we have found that a host molecule, Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 (CADM1), is robustly upregulated in KSHV-infected PBMCs and KSHV-associated PEL cells. Further investigation determined that both vFLIP and vGPCR interacted with CADM1. The PDZ binding motif localized at the carboxyl terminus of CADM1 is essential for both vGPCR and vFLIP to maintain chronic NF-κB activation. Membrane lipid raft associated CADM1 interaction with vFLIP is critical for the initiation of IKK kinase complex and NF-κB activation in the PEL cells. In addition, CADM1 played essential roles in the survival of KSHV-associated PEL cells. These data indicate that CADM1 plays key roles in the activation of NF-κB pathways during latent and lytic phases of the KSHV life cycle and the survival of KSHV-infected cells.</p></div

Sequence, Structure, and Context Preferences of Human RNA Binding Proteins

RNA binding proteins (RBPs) orchestrate the production, processing, and function of mRNAs. Here, we present the affinity landscapes of 78 human RBPs using an unbiased assay that determines the sequence, structure, and context preferences of these proteins in vitro by deep sequencing of bound RNAs. These data enable construction of “RNA maps” of RBP activity without requiring crosslinking-based assays. We found an unexpectedly low diversity of RNA motifs, implying frequent convergence of binding specificity toward a relatively small set of RNA motifs, many with low compositional complexity. Offsetting this trend, however, we observed extensive preferences for contextual features distinct from short linear RNA motifs, including spaced “bipartite” motifs, biased flanking nucleotide composition, and bias away from or toward RNA structure. Our results emphasize the importance of contextual features in RNA recognition, which likely enable targeting of distinct subsets of transcripts by different RBPs that recognize the same linear motif. Dominguez et al. describe in vitro binding specificities of 78 human RNA binding proteins (RBPs) to RNA sequences and structures. They find that many RBPs bind similar RNA motifs but differ in affinity for spaced “bipartite” motifs, flanking composition, and RNA structure, supporting the model that distinct motif occurrences are often discriminated based on sequence context. Keywords: alternative splicing; mRNA stability; RBNS; RNA binding protein; RNA recognition motif; KH domain; zinc finger; Pum domain; RNA secondary structure; RNA contex

Impaired B Cell Apoptosis Results in Autoimmunity That Is Alleviated by Ablation of Btk

While apoptosis plays a role in B-cell self-tolerance, its significance in preventing autoimmunity remains unclear. Here, we report that dysregulated B cell apoptosis leads to delayed onset autoimmune phenotype in mice. Our longitudinal studies revealed that mice with B cell-specific deletion of pro-apoptotic Bim ( ) have an expanded B cell compartment with a notable increase in transitional, antibody secreting and recently described double negative (DN) B cells. They develop greater hypergammaglobulinemia than mice lacking Bim in all cells and accumulate several autoantibodies characteristic of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) and related Sjögren's Syndrome (SS) including anti-nuclear, anti-Ro/SSA and anti-La/SSB at a level comparable to NODH2h4 autoimmune mouse model. Furthermore, lymphocytes infiltrated the tissues including submandibular glands and formed follicle-like structures populated with B cells, plasma cells and T follicular helper cells indicative of ongoing immune reaction. This autoimmunity was ameliorated upon deletion of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) gene, which encodes a key B cell signaling protein. These studies suggest that Bim-mediated apoptosis suppresses and B cell tyrosine kinase signaling promotes B cell-mediated autoimmunity

B cell apoptosis and inflammation conspire to promote lupus in mice

Abstract The pathogenesis of Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is driven by autoreactive B and T cells and autoinflammation. Impaired apoptosis in T and B cells has been shown to result in autoimmune disease, and we recently demonstrated that reducing apoptosis in B cells alone, by B cell-specific deletion of Bim (B.Bim f/f) could lead to SLE with prominent features of Sjogren’s Syndrome in C57BL/6 mice. Consistently, B cell targeting therapies are successful in reducing SLE pathogenesis in mouse models, however, their clinical success requires a better understanding of the contributions of B cells and the mechanisms that drive inflammation to autoimmunity. To address the role of inflammation in the development and progression of autoimmunity we generated a novel mouse model that lacks ZFAND6 (Zfand6 −/−) and crossed with the B.Bim f/fmice. ZFAND6 is an A-20 like ZF domain-containing protein with a potential role in the negative regulation of NF-kB activation, however, its physiological function is unknown. The compound mutant mice displayed accelerated and exacerbated overlapping lupus and Sjogren’s autoimmune symptoms with a higher incidence of splenomegaly and kidney pathology than either single mutant alone including the early appearance of anti-SSA, anti-SSB, and anti-RNP autoantibodies. The compound mutant mice displayed increased spontaneous and TLR-induced TNFa and IL-6 and B cells from these mice produced much greater levels of these cytokines in response to TLR7 and TLR9. These results suggest that inappropriate B cell survival and persistent inflammation cooperate in the initiation and severity of lupus pathogenesis. Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami, Miami F

CADM1 is required for KSHV vFLIP to activate NF-κB.

<p>(A) NF-κB luciferase assay using lysates of HeLa cells expressing increasing amounts of CADM1 or vFLIP. HeLa cells were transfected with increasing amounts of either CADM1 or vFLIP with κB‐TATA Luc and pRL‐tk plasmids. After 36 hours, lysates were subjected to dual luciferase assays. The lysates were also subjected to immunoblotting to examine CADM1 and vFLIP expression using anti-Flag antibody. (B) NF-κB luciferase assay using lysates of HeLa cells stably expressing control scrambled shRNA or three different CADM1 shRNAs and transfected with pRL-tk, κB-TATA Luc and vFLIP as indicated. Immunoblot analyses of CADM1 protein expression in HeLa cells after transduction with lentiviruses expressing different shRNAs targeting distinct sequences of the CADM1 transcript. (C) NF-κB luciferase assay using lysates of <i>Cadm1</i>^<i>+/+</i> and <i>Cadm1</i>^{<i>−/−</i>} MEFs transfected with pRL-tk internal control Renilla luciferase plasmid, κB-TATA Luc and vFLIP as indicated. The lysates were also subjected to immunoblotting to examine vFLIP expression. (D) A schematic overview of the FLAG-CADM1 deletion mutants ΔSP, ΔCP, ΔEC, ΔPDZ-BM and ΔFERM. (E) NF-κB luciferase assay of lysates of <i>Cadm1</i>^{<i>−/−</i>} MEFs transfected with an NF-κB firefly luciferase reporter and a renilla luciferase vector reporter together with empty vector or an expression vector for Flag-tagged wild-type CADM1, CADM1 ΔSP, CADM1 ΔCP, CADM1 ΔEC, CADM1 ΔPDZ-BM and CADM1 ΔFERM-BM with vFLIP. The lysates were also subjected to immunoblotting to examine expression of vFLIP and Flag for wild-type and deletion mutants of CADM1. Error bars represent s.e.m. of triplicates.</p