The role of intermediaries in the transition to district heating

For those countries, such as the UK, in which district heating and cooling has previously played little role in the energy system, the technology often struggles to break through the numerous and complex barriers to its introduction in the context of liberalised energy markets and competition with incumbent technologies such as natural gas networks. Progress is often slow and best practice is yet to be established. ‘Intermediaries’ are actors who facilitate knowledge sharing and build actor networks to enable the introduction of new technologies. This paper uses a case study of the UK to explore where and how the activities of these intermediary actors are currently supporting district heating development. An innovative method called a ‘decision theatre’ was used to collect empirical evidence from a range of local stakeholders involved in district heating projects. This method, which took place in the format of a group workshop, enables understanding of the interactions between stakeholders through each stage of the district heating development process. Lessons are drawn from this case study with regard to how intermediary activities can support the development of district heating in areas with little previous history of such systems. Three geographical scales of intermediary activity are identified (local, regional and national) as having different roles in enabling delivery of new district heating projects. Interactions between the three scales and how their roles might change as the sector develops are explored. The paper will highlight implications of the study for policymakers. In particular, a role is identified for intermediaries in creating a supportive institutional and policy environment that can enable development of large-scale, strategic networks

Realising the social benefits of district heating through strategic planning

Affordability, low carbon and security are hailed as the three critical characteristics of our future energy system. In this respect, district heating offers towns and cities many attractive characteristics. In particular, under the right governance models, it can offer social benefits by lowering energy costs and alleviating fuel poverty. This research uses the case study of the UK, a country where less than 2% of heat is delivered by district heating, but where levels of fuel poverty are a significant challenge. UK local authorities play an active role in the early planning stages of district heating and many are aiming to alleviate fuel poverty with these projects. The results show that the full variety of actor motivations are not reflected within their decision criteria; although local authorities aspire to take a strategic planning role, this is not reflected in the mapping tools that they use in feasibility work. We propose a more flexible approach to mapping for strategic planning and consider its role in bringing forward DH schemes that reduce fuel poverty

Municipal energy companies in the UK: Motivations and barriers

Municipal energy companies have the potential to contribute to low-carbon transition but could also deliver a wider range of benefits, such as fuel poverty reduction and economic growth. There are myriad ways that municipalities could engage in energy provision, however, local authorities face challenges related to matching their motivations to appropriate business models which are exacerbated by unsupportive policy and regulation. More effective decision support tools are required, in addition to changes in policy and regulation, to exploit the potential social and environmental benefits offered by municipal energy companies. An interdisciplinary approach is needed to take this initial work forward to explore business models that match actor motivations and a more complex definition of value

Exploring acceptance of decentralised energy storage at household and neighbourhood scales: A UK survey

Effective deployment of Distributed Energy Storage (DES) will depend in part on public attitudes and acceptance at both community and household levels. Here, we present the results of an exploratory survey to understand prospective public acceptance of DES technologies at household and community level in the UK (N = 949). The research design draws on previous qualitative technology acceptance work that was undertaken to inform the survey. We show that while the level of awareness of DES among the UK public is still very low, initial evaluation of information on domestic and neighbourhood battery storage is positive and evokes positive feelings that are significant predictors of positive attitudes. Moreover, the UK public has strong expectations about the technology, its benefits and its management. In particular, the results point to a bounded and place-based role for altruism: that people are more likely to accept energy storage facilities in their neighbourhood if they are for the benefit of that same neighbourhood. The results help us to understand public expectations of the technologies and the institutions relevant to decentralised energy design and deployment by commercial and public sector actors, as well as having implications for policy design and communication strategies

A boundary layer scaling technique for estimating near-surface wind energy using numerical weather prediction and wind map data

A boundary layer scaling (BLS) method for predicting long-term average near-surface wind speeds and power densities was developed in this work. The method was based on the scaling of reference climatological data either from long-term average wind maps or from hourly wind speeds obtained from high-resolution Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models, with case study applications from Great Britain. It incorporated a more detailed parameterisation of surface aerodynamics than previous studies and the predicted wind speeds and power densities were validated against observational wind speeds from 124 sites across Great Britain. The BLS model could offer long-term average wind speed predictions using wind map data derived from long-term observational data, with a mean percentage error of 1.5 % which provided an improvement on the commonly used NOABL (Numerical Objective Analysis of Boundary Layer) wind map. The boundary layer scaling of NWP data was not, however, able to improve upon the use of raw NWP data for near surface wind speed predictions. However, the use of NWP data scaled by the BLS model could offer improved power density predictions compared to the use of the reference data sets. Using a vertical scaling of the shape factor of a Weibull distribution fitted to the BLS NWP data, power density predictions with a 1 % mean percentage error were achieved. This provided a significant improvement on the use of a fixed shape factor which must be utilised when only long-term average wind speeds are available from reference wind maps. The work therefore highlights the advantages that use of a BLS model for wind speed and NWP data for power density predictions can offer for small to medium scale wind energy resource assessments, potentially facilitating more robust annual energy production and financial assessments of prospective small and medium scale wind turbine installations

Getting the Best of Both Worlds? Developing Complementary Equation-Based and Agent-Based Models

We argue that building agent-based and equation-based versions of the same theoretical model is a fruitful way of gaining insights into real-world phenomena. We use the epistemological concept of “models as isolations and surrogate systems” as the philosophical underpinning of this argument. In particular, we show that agent-based and equation-based approaches align well when used simultaneously and, contrary to some common misconceptions, should be considered complements rather than substitutes. We illustrate the usefulness of the approach by examining a model of the long-run relationship between economic development and inequality (i.e., the Kuznets hypothesis)

What Makes Decentralised Energy Storage Schemes Successful? An Assessment Incorporating Stakeholder Perspectives

Decentralised energy storage is increasingly seen as being important for decarbonising local energy systems and the global market for such systems is expected to grow significantly. Several studies have looked into the technical development of decentralised energy storage systems, as well as examining how different business models can enable them to capture a variety of value streams. Recent work has also explored public perceptions of energy storage, yet so far there has been little focus on how the different dimensions affecting deployment interact together. Here, we present the result of a deliberative workshop which gathers stakeholders’ views and addresses how the interplay between these three dimensions affects successful deployment. Our approach is holistic and integrative and utilises a participatory decision-making methodology. The findings of the research add substantially to the understanding of how decentralised energy storage schemes should be implemented. The research reveals that there are many aspects that can help to either facilitate or impede a storage scheme, and stakeholders perceive multiple ways to engage with the deployment of the technology. We show that the following four principles could contribute to achieving success: maximizing simplicity and clarity; managing expectations, uncertainty and risk; generating benefits for the community; and the involvement of trusted actors

An assessment of road-verge grass as a feedstock for farm-fed anaerobic digestion plants

Cuttings from road-verge grass could provide biomass for energy generation, but currently this potential is not exploited. This research assessed the technical, practical and financial feasibility of using grass harvested from road verges as a feedstock in farm-fed anaerobic digestion (AD) plants. The methane potential (191 mL CH4 gDM−1) and digestion characteristics of verge grass were similar to those of current farm feedstocks; indicating suitability for AD. Ensiling had no significant impact on the biomethane generated. Testing co-digestions of verge grass with current farm feedstocks showed enhanced methane yields, suggesting that verge grass could be a valuable addition to AD feedstock mixes. In a case study of the UK county of Lincolnshire, potential volumes and locations of verge grass biomass were estimated, with capacities and locations of existing AD plants, to assess the potential to supply practical grass volumes. Grass harvesting costs were modelled and compared with other feedstock costs. Finally, the attitudes of AD operators to using verge grass were investigated to understand whether a market for verge grass exists. In a small survey all operators were willing to use it as a feedstock and most were prepared to pay over the estimated harvesting cost. If verge grass was legally recognised as a waste product it could be attractive to AD operators especially where financial incentives to use waste feedstocks are in place. In rural areas, verge grass could be harvested and co-digested by existing farm-fed AD plants, potentially reducing the cost of road verge maintenance and increasing biodiversity