The mechanical stimulation of myotubes counteracts the effects of tumor-derived factors through the modulation of the activin/follistatin ratio

Activin negatively affects muscle fibers and progenitor cells in aging (sarcopenia) and in chronic diseases characterized by severe muscle wasting (cachexia). High circulating activin levels predict poor survival in cancer patients. However, the relative impact of activin in mediating muscle atrophy and hampered homeostasis is still unknown. To directly assess the involvement of activin, and its physiological inhibitor follistatin, in cancer-induced muscle atrophy, we cultured C2C12 myotubes in the absence or in the presence of a mechanical stretching stimulus and in the absence or presence of C26 tumor-derived factors (CM), so as to mimic the mechanical stimulation of exercise and cancer cachexia, respectively. We found that CM induces activin release by myotubes, further exacerbating the negative effects of tumor-derived factors. In addition, mechanical stimulation is sufficient to counteract the adverse tumor-induced effects on muscle cells, in association with an increased follistatin/activin ratio in the cell culture medium, indicating that myotubes actively release follistatin upon stretching. Recombinant follistatin counteracts tumor effects on myotubes exclusively by rescuing fusion index, suggesting that it is only partially responsible for the stretch-mediated rescue. Therefore, besides activin, other tumor-derived factors may play a significant role in mediating muscle atrophy. In addition to increasing follistatin secretion mechanical stimulation induces additional beneficial responses in myotubes. We propose that in animal models of cancer cachexia and in cancer patients purely mechanical stimuli play an important role in mediating the rescue of the muscle homeostasis reported upon exercise

Mechanisms involved in the cross-talk between humoral and mechanical cues underlying muscle wasting in cachexia

Introduction. Exercise training improves quality of life and survival of cancer patients. In an animal model of cancer cachexia we demonstrated that wheel running counteracts cachexia by releasing the autophagic flux. Exercise pleitropic effects include the alteration of circulating factors in favour of an anti-inflammatory environment and the activation of mechanotransduction pathways in muscle cells. Our goal is to assess whether mechanostransduciton per se is sufficient to elicit exercise effects in the presence of pro-cachectic factors of tumor origin. Serum response factor (SRF) is a transcription factor of pivotal importance for muscle homeostasis, which is activated with its co-factor MRTF by mechanostranduction in a way dependent on actin polymerisation. Methods. We use C26 tumor-bearing mice, in the absence or presence of wheel running, and mixed cultures of C2C12 myotubes and myoblasts treated with C26 conditioned medium (CM) in the absence or presence of cyclic stretch to mimic the mechanical stimulation occurring upon exercise. Results. In vivo both SRF expression and activity are differentially modulated by the C26 tumor, i.e. by humoral factors, and by exercise. In vitro we showed that CM had a negative effect on muscle cell cultures, both in terms of myotube atrophy and of myoblast recruitment and fusion, and that these effects were counteracted by cyclic stretch. We showed that CM repressed SRF-MRTF transcriptional activity, while mechanical stretch rescued their transcriptional activity; in addition, loss of function experiments demonstrated that SRF was necessary to mediate the beneficial effects of mechanical stimulation on muscle cells. At least part of the observed effects were mediated by the balance of pro- and anti-myogenic factor of the TGFbeta superfamily. Conclusions. We propose that the positive effects of exercise on cancer patients and mice may be specifically due to a mechanical response of muscle fibers affecting the secretion of myokines

I meccanismi coinvolsero nel colloquio incrociato tra humoral ed indicazioni meccaniche muscolo fondamentale che spreca in cachexia

Cachexia is a multifactorial syndrome associated to chronic or acute disease (cancer, HIV,…) and characterized by severe muscle wasting. In fact, exercise training improves quality of life and survival of cancer patients. In an animal model of cancer cachexia we demonstrated that wheel running counteracts cachexia by releasing the autophagic flux. Exercise pleitropic effects include the alteration of circulating factors in favour of an anti-inflammatory environment and the activation of mechanotransduction pathways in muscle cells. Our goal is to assess whether mechanostransduciton per se is sufficient to elicit exercise effects in the presence of pro-cachectic factors of tumor origin. Serum response factor (SRF) is a transcription factor of pivotal importance for muscle homeostasis, which is activated with its co-factor MRTF by mechanostranduction in a way dependent on actin polymerisation. We use mixed cultures of C2C12 myotubes and myoblasts treated with C26 conditioned medium (CM) in the absence or presence of cyclic stretch to mimic the mechanical stimulation occurring upon exercise. In vitro we showed that CM had a negative effect on muscle cell cultures, both in terms of myotube atrophy and of myoblast recruitment and fusion, and that these effects were counteracted by cyclic stretch. We showed that CM repressed SRF-MRTF transcriptional activity, while mechanical stretch rescued their transcriptional activity; in addition, loss of function experiments demonstrated that SRF was necessary to mediate the beneficial effects of mechanical stimulation on muscle cells. At least part of the observed effects was mediated by the balance of pro- and anti-myogenic factor of the TGF-b superfamily. We propose that the positive effects of exercise on cancer patients and mice may be specifically due to a mechanical response of muscle fibers affecting the secretion of myokines.Cachexie est syndrome multifactoriel associé a une maladie chronique ou incurable et caractérisé par un importante fonte musculaire. En fait, l’exercice physique améliore la qualité de vie et la survie des patients cancéreux. Dans un modèle animal de cachexie dû au cancer, nous avons démontré que la course sur roue contre la cachexie par la libération du flux d’autophagie. Les effets de l’exercice pléitropique incluent la modification des facteurs circulants en faveur d’un environnement anti-inflammatoire et l’activation des voies de mécanotransduction dans les cellules musculaires. Notre but est d'évaluer si la mécanotransduction est suffisante à elle seule pour mimer l’exercice en présence de facteurs pro-cachétiques d'origine tumorale. Le facteur de réponse au sérum (SRF est un facteur de transcription important pour homéostasie musculaire, qui est activé avec son co-facteur MRTF par la mécanotransduction de façon dépendant à la polymérisation de l'actin. Nous utilisons une culture mixte de C2C12 myotubes et myoblastes traitée avec un milieu condition par des C26 (CM) en absence ou en présence d'étirements cycliques qui miment la stimulation mécanique. Nous avons démontré in vitro que le CM a un effet négatif sur les cultures de cellules musculaires, sur l'atrophie des myotubes, sur le recrutement et la fusion des myoblastes, et que ces effets sont contrecarrés par l'étirement mécanique. Nous avons montré que le CM inhibe l'activité transcriptionnelle de SRF-MRTF, alors que l'étirement mécanique rétablit cette activité ; en plus, des expériences de perte de fonction ont démontré que SRF est nécessaire pour médier les effets bénéfiques des stimulations mécaniques sur les cellules musculaires. Au moins une part des effets de l’exercice observés étaient médiés par la balance des facteurs pro- et anti-myogeniques de la superfamille TGF-b. Nous proposons que les effets positifs de l’exercice sur les patients cancéreux et les souris pourraient être spécifiquement dûs a la réponse mécanique des fibres musculaires affectant la sécrétion des myokines.Cachexia è una sindrome di multifactorial associata a malattia cronica o acuta (cancro, HIV.) e caratterizzò da spreco di muscolo severo. Infatti, l'esercizio addestrando migliora qualità della vita e sopravvivenza di pazienti di cancro. In un modello animale di cachexia di cancro noi dimostrammo quello ruota correndo contrattacca cachexia rilasciando il flusso di autophagic. Gli effetti di pleitropic di esercizio includono la modifica di fattori circolanti nel favore di un ambiente antinfiammatorio e l'attivazione di sentieri di mechanotransduction in celle di muscolo. La nostra meta è stimare se mechanostransduciton per se è sufficiente per suscitare effetti di esercizio nella presenza di pro-cachectic fattori di origine di tumore. Il fattore (SRF) di risposta di siero è un fattore di trascrizione dell'importanza importantissima per omeostasi di muscolo che è attivato col suo co-coefficiente MRTF da mechanostranduction in un modo dipendente su polymerisation di actin. Noi usiamo le culture mescolate del myotubes di C2C12 e myoblasts trattate con C26 condizionarono mezzo (Cm) nell'assenza o presenza di stiramento ciclico a mimico la stimolazione meccanica che accade su esercizio. In vitro noi mostrammo che il Cm aveva un effetto negativo su culture di cella di muscolo, ambo nelle condizioni di atrofia di myotube e di assunzione di myoblast e fusione, e che questi effetti furono contrattaccati da stiramento ciclico. Noi mostrammo che il Cm represse l'attività di transcriptional di SRF-MRTF, mentre lo stiramento meccanico liberò la loro attività di transcriptional; in somma, perdita di esperimenti di funzione dimostrò, che SRF era necessario per interporre gli effetti benefici di stimolazione meccanica su celle di muscolo. Almeno parte degli effetti osservati fu interposta dall'equilibrio di pro - ed anti-myogenic fattore del TGF. il superfamily. Noi proponiamo che gli effetti positivi di esercizio su pazienti di cancro e topi specificamente possono essere a causa di una risposta meccanica di fibre di muscolo che colpiscono l'occultamento di myokines

Basking in their Niche: Stem Cells with Myogenic Potential as a Target to Combat Cachexia

Skeletal muscle contains several myogenic populations: satellite cells, muscle derived stem cells, PW1+ stem cells, mesoangioblasts / pericytes, fibroadipogenic progenitor cells, and hematopoietic stem cells. In response to muscle damage in cachexia, these myogenic populations proliferate, but fail to fuse into myofibers. Substantial evidence points to pro-inflammatory cytokines and other anti-myogenic factors, which apparently are responsible for this paradoxical increase in the muscle stem-cell pool in wasting muscle. Therapeutic efforts are currently aimed at counteracting myofiber catabolism and atrophy; nonetheless, functional myogenic cells could be an additional therapeutic targets. As in dystrophic muscles, myogenic cells can sustain muscle homeostasis for a long time, even in the presence of overt muscle damage and wasting. Many tools are already available to stimulate their differentiation, from exercise to the pharmacological removal of inhibitory signals blocking this very differentiation. However, an extended characterization of the various myogenic stem-cell populations, in search of the one resistant to cachectic factors, has not been performed to date. The identification of either an engineered or an endogenous myogenic cell type able to differentiate or fuse to cachectic myofibers in the presence of a non-permissive milieu would represent a revolutionary approach to counteract cachexia

Opposite effects of tumor-derived cytokines and mechanical stimulation on muscle stem cell activity and muscle homeostasis

Cancer cachexia is a muscle wasting syndrome, characterized by muscle fiber atrophy and hampered satellite cell (SC) myogenic potential, ultimately leading to morbidity, lowered quality of life, and death. Exercise training improves quality of life and survival of cancer patients and its beneficial effects can be mimicked by wheel running in mice.1,2 In an animal model of cancer cachexia we demonstrated that wheel running counteracts cachexia by releasing the autophagic flux and by lowering Pax7 expression, which blocks SC myogenic progression.3,4. Exercise pleiotropic effects include the alteration of circulating factors in favor of an anti-inflammatory environment and the activation of mechanotransduction pathways in muscle cells. Serum response factor (SRF) is a transcription factor of pivotal importance for muscle homeostasis, which is activated with its co-factor MRTF by mechanotransduction in a way dependent on actin polymerization.5 Our goal was to assess whether mechanotransduction per se is sufficient to elicit exercise effects in the presence of pro-cachectic factors of tumor origin and to characterize the mechanotransduction signals involved