122 research outputs found

    The Ideology of Heads of Government, 1870-2012

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    This Note introduces the Heads of Government dataset, which provides summary information about the ideological orientation of heads of government (left, center, or right, with separately provided information about religious orientation) in 33 states in Western Europe, the Americas, and the Asia–Pacific region between 1870 and 2012. The Note also describes some intriguing empirical patterns when it comes to over-time changes in the political prominence of left-wing, centrist, and right-wing parties

    The Lay of the Land: Information Capacity and the Modern State

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    Relying on three new indicators of the information capacity of states, this paper provides new evidence on the ability of states to collect and process information about the territories and populations that they govern. The three indicators are (a) the availability of a reliable census, (b) the establishment of a permanent government agency tasked with processing statistical information about the territory and the population, and (c) the regular release of statistical yearbooks. We find, as expected, that there has been a secular increase in information capacity over time. We also investigate salient differences among countries from the early 1800s onward

    Election proximity and representation focus in party-constrained environments

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    Do elected representatives have a time-constant representation focus or do they adapt their focus depending on election proximity? In this article, we examine these overlooked theoretical and empirical puzzles by looking at how reelection-seeking actors adapt their legislative behavior according to the electoral cycle. In parliamentary democracies, representatives need to serve two competing principals: their party and their district. Our analysis hinges on how representatives make a strategic use of parliamentary written questions in a highly party-constrained institutional context to heighten their reselection and reelection prospects. Using an original data set of over 32,000 parliamentary questions tabled by Portuguese representatives from 2005 to 2015, we examine how time interacts with two key explanatory elements: electoral vulnerability and party size. Results show that representation focus is not static over time and, in addition, that electoral vulnerability and party size shape strategic use of parliamentary questions

    Finansiering av staten: statliga skatteintÀkter frÄn 1800 till 2012

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    This dataset presents information on historical central government revenues for 31 countries in Europe and the Americas for the period from 1800 (or independence) to 2012. The countries included are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany (West Germany between 1949 and 1990), Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In other words, the dataset includes all South American, North American, and Western European countries with a population of more than one million, plus Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Mexico. The dataset contains information on the public finances of central governments. To make such information comparable cross-nationally we have chosen to normalize nominal revenue figures in two ways: (i) as a share of the total budget, and (ii) as a share of total gross domestic product. The total tax revenue of the central state is disaggregated guided by the Government Finance Statistics Manual 2001 of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which provides a classification of types of revenue, and describes in detail the contents of each classification category. Given the paucity of detailed historical data and the needs of our project, we combined some subcategories. First, we are interested in total tax revenue (centaxtot), as well as the shares of total revenue coming from direct (centaxdirectsh) and indirect (centaxindirectsh) taxes. Further, we measure two sub-categories of direct taxation, namely taxes on property (centaxpropertysh) and income (centaxincomesh). For indirect taxes, we separate excises (centaxexcisesh), consumption (centaxconssh), and customs(centaxcustomssh). For a more detailed description of the dataset and the coding process, see the codebook available in the .zip-file. Purpose: This dataset presents information on historical central government revenues for 31 countries in Europe and the Americas for the period from 1800 (or independence) to 2012. The countries included are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany (West Germany between 1949 and 1990), Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In other words, the dataset includes all South American, North American, and Western European countries with a population of more than one million, plus Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Mexico. The dataset contains information on the public finances of central governments. To make such information comparable cross-nationally we have chosen to normalize nominal revenue figures in two ways: (i) as a share of the total budget, and (ii) as a share of total gross domestic product. The total tax revenue of the central state is disaggregated guided by the Government Finance Statistics Manual 2001 of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which provides a classification of types of revenue, and describes in detail the contents of each classification category. Given the paucity of detailed historical data and the needs of our project, we combined some subcategories. First, we are interested in total tax revenue (centaxtot), as well as the shares of total revenue coming from direct (centaxdirectsh) and indirect (centaxindirectsh) taxes. Further, we measure two sub-categories of direct taxation, namely taxes on property (centaxpropertysh) and income (centaxincomesh). For indirect taxes, we separate excises (centaxexcisesh), consumption (centaxconssh), and customs(centaxcustomssh).Detta dataset presenterar information över statens skatteintĂ€kter för 31 lĂ€nder i Europa, Nordamerika och Sydamerika frĂ„n 1800 (eller sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet) till 2012. LĂ€nderna i datasetet Ă€r: Argentina, Australien, Österrike, Belgien, Bolivia, Brasilien, Kanada, Chile, Colombia, Danmark, Ecuador, Finland, Frankrike, Tyskland (VĂ€sttyskland mellan 1949 och 1990), Irland, Italien, Japan, Mexiko, Nya Zeeland, Norge, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spanien, Sverige, Schweiz, NederlĂ€nderna, USA Storbritannien, USA, Uruguay och Venezuela. Med andra ord innehĂ„ller datasetet alla sydamerikanska, nordamerikanska och vĂ€steuropeiska lĂ€nder med en befolkning pĂ„ mer Ă€n en miljon plus Australien, nya Zeeland, Japan och Mexiko. Datasetet innehĂ„ller information om den centrala statens offentliga finanser. För att göra denna information jĂ€mförbar mellan lĂ€nder har vi valt att normalisera de nominella intĂ€ktssiffrorna pĂ„ tvĂ„ sĂ€tt: (i) som en andel av den totala budgeten och (ii) som en andel av den totala bruttonationalprodukten. Den centrala statens totala skatteintĂ€kter Ă€r uppdelade baserat pĂ„ Internationella valutafondens (IMF) handbok över statsfinanser frĂ„n 2001. Denna ger en klassificering av intĂ€ktstyper och beskriver innehĂ„llet i varje klassificeringskategori. Med tanke pĂ„ den bristfĂ€lliga historiska datan och vĂ„ra projektbehov kombinerade vi nĂ„gra underkategorier. Till att börja med Ă€r vi intresserade av totala skatteintĂ€kter (centaxtot), liksom andelarna av totala intĂ€kter som kommer frĂ„n direkta (centaxdirectsh) och indirekta (centaxindirectsh) skatter. Vidare mĂ€ter vi tvĂ„ underkategorier av direkt beskattning, nĂ€mligen skatter pĂ„ egendom (centaxpropertysh) och inkomst (centaxincomesh). För indirekta skatter skiljer vi pĂ„ punktskatter (centaxexcisesh), konsumtion (centaxconssh) och tullar (centaxcustomssh). För en mer detaljerad beskrivning av datan och insamlingsprocessen, se kodboken som finns tillgĂ€nlig i .zip-filen. Syfte: Detta dataset presenterar information över statens skatteintĂ€kter för 31 lĂ€nder i Europa, Nordamerika och Sydamerika frĂ„n 1800 (eller sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet) till 2012. LĂ€nderna i datasetet Ă€r: Argentina, Australien, Österrike, Belgien, Bolivia, Brasilien, Kanada, Chile, Colombia, Danmark, Ecuador, Finland, Frankrike, Tyskland (VĂ€sttyskland mellan 1949 och 1990), Irland, Italien, Japan, Mexiko, Nya Zeeland, Norge, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spanien, Sverige, Schweiz, NederlĂ€nderna, USA Storbritannien, USA, Uruguay och Venezuela. Med andra ord innehĂ„ller datasetet alla sydamerikanska, nordamerikanska och vĂ€steuropeiska lĂ€nder med en befolkning pĂ„ mer Ă€n en miljon plus Australien, nya Zeeland, Japan och Mexiko. Datasetet innehĂ„ller information om den centrala statens offentliga finanser. För att göra denna information jĂ€mförbar mellan lĂ€nder har vi valt att normalisera de nominella intĂ€ktssiffrorna pĂ„ tvĂ„ sĂ€tt: (i) som en andel av den totala budgeten och (ii) som en andel av den totala bruttonationalprodukten. Den centrala statens totala skatteintĂ€kter Ă€r uppdelade baserat pĂ„ Internationella valutafondens (IMF) handbok över statsfinanser frĂ„n 2001. Denna ger en klassificering av intĂ€ktstyper och beskriver innehĂ„llet i varje klassificeringskategori. Med tanke pĂ„ den bristfĂ€lliga historiska datan och vĂ„ra projektbehov kombinerade vi nĂ„gra underkategorier. Till att börja med Ă€r vi intresserade av totala skatteintĂ€kter (centaxtot), liksom andelarna av totala intĂ€kter som kommer frĂ„n direkta (centaxdirectsh) och indirekta (centaxindirectsh) skatter. Vidare mĂ€ter vi tvĂ„ underkategorier av direkt beskattning, nĂ€mligen skatter pĂ„ egendom (centaxpropertysh) och inkomst (centaxincomesh). För indirekta skatter skiljer vi pĂ„ punktskatter (centaxexcisesh), konsumtion (centaxconssh) och tullar (centaxcustomssh). Detta dataset presenterar information över statens skatteintĂ€kter för 31 lĂ€nder i Europa, Nordamerika och Sydamerika frĂ„n 1800 (eller sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet) till 2012. LĂ€nderna i datasetet Ă€r: Argentina, Australien, Österrike, Belgien, Bolivia, Brasilien, Kanada, Chile, Colombia, Danmark, Ecuador, Finland, Frankrike, Tyskland (VĂ€sttyskland mellan 1949 och 1990), Irland, Italien, Japan, Mexiko, Nya Zeeland, Norge, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spanien, Sverige, Schweiz, NederlĂ€nderna, USA Storbritannien, USA, Uruguay och Venezuela. Med andra ord innehĂ„ller datasetet alla sydamerikanska, nordamerikanska och vĂ€steuropeiska lĂ€nder med en befolkning pĂ„ mer Ă€n en miljon plus Australien, nya Zeeland, Japan och Mexiko. Datasetet innehĂ„ller information om den centrala statens offentliga finanser. För att göra denna information jĂ€mförbar mellan lĂ€nder har vi valt att normalisera de nominella intĂ€ktssiffrorna pĂ„ tvĂ„ sĂ€tt: (i) som en andel av den totala budgeten och (ii) som en andel av den totala bruttonationalprodukten. Den centrala statens totala skatteintĂ€kter Ă€r uppdelade baserat pĂ„ Internationella valutafondens (IMF) handbok över statsfinanser frĂ„n 2001. Denna ger en klassificering av intĂ€ktstyper och beskriver innehĂ„llet i varje klassificeringskategori. Med tanke pĂ„ den bristfĂ€lliga historiska datan och vĂ„ra projektbehov kombinerade vi nĂ„gra underkategorier. Till att börja med Ă€r vi intresserade av totala skatteintĂ€kter (centaxtot), liksom andelarna av totala intĂ€kter som kommer frĂ„n direkta (centaxdirectsh) och indirekta (centaxindirectsh) skatter. Vidare mĂ€ter vi tvĂ„ underkategorier av direkt beskattning, nĂ€mligen skatter pĂ„ egendom (centaxpropertysh) och inkomst (centaxincomesh). För indirekta skatter skiljer vi pĂ„ punktskatter (centaxexcisesh), konsumtion (centaxconssh) och tullar (centaxcustomssh)
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