Vibrio vulnificus Type 6 Secretion System 1 contains anti-Bacterial properties.

This is the final version of the article. Available from Public Library of Science via the DOI in this record.Vibrio vulnificus is a bacterium responsible for severe gastroenteritis, sepsis and wound infections. Gastroenteritis and sepsis are commonly associated with the consumption of raw oysters, whereas wound infection is often associated with the handling of contaminated fish. Although classical virulence factors of this emerging pathogen are well characterised, there remains a paucity of knowledge regarding the general biology of this species. To investigate the presence of previously unreported virulence factors, we applied whole genome sequencing to a panel of ten V. vulnificus strains with varying virulence potentials. This identified two novel type 6 secretion systems (T6SSs), systems that are known to have a role in bacterial virulence and population dynamics. By utilising a range of molecular techniques and assays we have demonstrated the functionality of one of these T6SSs. Furthermore, we have shown that this system is subject to thermoregulation and is negatively regulated by increasing salinity concentrations. This secretion system was also shown to be involved in the killing of V. vulnificus strains that did not possess this system and a model is proposed as to how this interaction may contribute to population dynamics within V. vulnificus strains. In addition to this intra-species killing, this system also contributes to the killing of inter bacterial species and may have a role in the general composition of Vibrio species in the environment.This work was funded by a CEFAS-Exeter University Alliance PhD Studentship awarded to SRC and SLM. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Characterization of Ferroplasma isolates and Ferroplasma acidarmanus sp nov., extreme acidophiles from acid mine drainage and industrial bioleaching environments

Three recently isolated extremely acidophilic archaeal strains have been shown to be phylogenetically similar to Ferroplasma acidiphilum Y-T by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. All four Ferroplasma isolates were capable of growing chemoorganotrophically on yeast extract or a range of sugars and chemomixotrophically on ferrous iron and yeast extract or sugars, and isolate "Ferroplasma acidarmanus" Fer1(T) required much higher levels of organic carbon. All four isolates were facultative anaerobes, coupling chemoorganotrophic growth on yeast extract to the reduction of ferric iron. The temperature optima for the four isolates were between 35 and 42degreesC and the pH optima were 1.0 to 1.7, and "F. acidarmanus" Fer1(T) was capable of growing at pH 0. The optimum yeast extract concentration for "F. acidarmanus" Fer1(T) was higher than that for the other three isolates. Phenotypic results suggested that isolate "F. acidarmanus" Fer1(T) is of a different species than the other three strains, and 16S rRNA sequence data, DNA-DNA similarity values, and two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis protein profiles clearly showed that strains DR1, MT17, and Y-T group as a single species. "F. acidarmanus" Fer1(T) groups separately, and we propose the new species "F. acidarmanus" Fer1(T) sp. nov

Galleria mellonella as an infection model to investigate virulence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus

This is the final version. Available from Taylor & Francis via the DOI in this recordNon-toxigenic V. parahaemolyticus isolates (tdh-/trh-/T3SS2-) have recently been isolated from patients with gastroenteritis. In this study we report that the larvae of the wax moth (Galleria mellonella) are susceptible to infection by toxigenic or non-toxigenic clinical isolates of V. parahaemolyticus. In comparison larvae inoculated with environmental isolates of V. parahaemolyticus did not succumb to disease. Whole genome sequencing of clinical non-toxigenic isolates revealed the presence of a gene encoding a nudix hydrolase, identified as mutT. A V. parahaemolyticus mutT mutant was unable to kill G. mellonella at 24 h post inoculation, indicating a role of this gene in virulence. Our findings show that G. mellonella is a valuable model for investigating screening of possible virulence genes of V. parahaemolyticus and can provide new insights into mechanisms of virulence of atypical non-toxigenic V. parahaemolyticus. These findings will allow improved genetic tests for the identification of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus to be developed and will have a significant impact for the scientific community.This work was partly supported by Wellcome Trust Institutional Strategic Support Fund (WT097835MF), Wellcome Trust Multi User Equipment Award (WT097835MF) Medical Research Council Clinical Infrastructure Funding (MR/M008924/1) and Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) funding (BB/N016513/1)

The foodborne transmission of Hepatitis E virus to humans

This is the final version. Available on open access from Springer via the DOI in this recordData Availability: All data are obtained from publicly available information.Globally, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes over 20 million cases worldwide. HEV is an emerging and endemic pathogen within economically developed countries, chiefly resulting from infections with genotype 3 (G3) HEV. G3 HEV is known to be a zoonotic pathogen, with a broad host range. The primary source of HEV within more economically developed countries is considered to be pigs, and consumption of pork products is a significant risk factor and known transmission route for the virus to humans. However, other foods have also been implicated in the transmission of HEV to humans. This review consolidates the information available regarding transmission of HEV and looks to identify gaps where further research is required to better understand how HEV is transmitted to humans through food.CefasSeedcornUniversity of ExeterWellcome TrustRoyal Societ

Evaluation of the protection against norovirus afforded by E. coli monitoring of shellfish production areas under EU regulations

EC Regulation 854/2004 requires the classification of bivalve mollusc harvesting areas according to the faecal pollution status of sites. It has been reported that determination of Escherichia coli in bivalve shellfish is a poor predictor of norovirus (NoV) contamination in individual samples. We explore the correlation of shellfish E. coli data with norovirus presence using data from studies across 88 UK sites (1,184 paired samples). We investigate whether current E. coli legislative standards could be refined to reduce NoV infection risk. A significant relationship between E. coli and NoV was found in the winter months (October to February) using data from sites with at least 10 data pairs (51 sites). We found that the ratio of arithmetic means (log10 E. coli to log10 NoV) at these sites ranged from 0.6 to 1.4. The lower ratios (towards 0.6) might typically indicate situations where the contribution from UV disinfected sewage discharges was more significant. Conversely, higher ratios (towards 1.4) might indicate a prevalence of animal sources of pollution; however, this relationship did not always hold true and so further work is required to fully elucidate the factors of relevance. Reducing the current class B maximum (allowed in 10% of samples) from 46,000 E. coli per 100 g (corresponding NoV value of 75750±103) to 18,000 E. coli per 100 g (corresponding NoV value of 29365±69) reduces maximum levels of NoV by a factor of 2.6 to 1; reducing the upper class B limit to 100% compliance with 4,600 E. coli per 100 g (corresponding NoV value of 7403±39) reduces maximum levels of NoV by a factor of 10.2 to 1. We found using the UK filtered winter dataset that a maximum of 200 NoV corresponded to a maximum of 128±7 E. coli per 100 g. A maximum of 1,000 NoV corresponded to a maximum of 631±14 E. coli per 100 g

Do Hadronic Charge Exchange Reactions Measure Electroweak L = 1 Strength?

An eikonal model has been used to assess the relationship between calculated strengths for first forbidden beta decay and calculated cross sections for (p,n) charge exchange reactions. It is found that these are proportional for strong transitions, suggesting that hadronic charge exchange reactions may be useful in determining the spin-dipole matrix elements for astrophysically interesting leptonic transitions.Comment: 14 pages, 5 figures, Submitted to Physical Review

Overexpression of antibiotic resistance genes in hospital effluents over time

$\textbf{Objectives}$: Effluents contain a diverse abundance of antibiotic resistance genes that augment the resistome of receiving aquatic environments. However, uncertainty remains regarding their temporal persistence, transcription and response to anthropogenic factors, such as antibiotic usage. We present a spatiotemporal study within a river catchment (River Cam, UK) that aims to determine the contribution of antibiotic resistance gene-containing effluents originating from sites of varying antibiotic usage to the receiving environment. $\textbf{Methods}$: Gene abundance in effluents (municipal hospital and dairy farm) was compared against background samples of the receiving aquatic environment (i.e. the catchment source) to determine the resistome contribution of effluents. We used metagenomics and metatranscriptomics to correlate DNA and RNA abundance and identified differentially regulated gene transcripts. $\textbf{Results}$: We found that mean antibiotic resistance gene and transcript abundances were correlated for both hospital (ρ=0.9, two-tailed $\textit{P}$<0.0001) and farm (ρ=0.5, two-tailed $\textit{P}$<0.0001) effluents and that two β-lactam resistance genes ($\textit{bla}$GES and $\textit{bla}$OXA) were overexpressed in all hospital effluent samples. High β-lactam resistance gene transcript abundance was related to hospital antibiotic usage over time and hospital effluents contained antibiotic residues. $\textbf{Conclusions}$: We conclude that effluents contribute high levels of antibiotic resistance genes to the aquatic environment; these genes are expressed at significant levels and are possibly related to the level of antibiotic usage at the effluent source.This research was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, GlaxoSmithKline and the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science

A review of climate change and the implementation of marine biodiversity legislation in the United Kingdom

1. Marine legislation, the key means by which the conservation of marine biodiversity is achieved, has been developing since the 1960s. In recent decades, an increasing focus on ‘holistic’ policy development is evident, compared with earlier ‘piecemeal’ sectoral approaches. Important marine legislative tools being used in the United Kingdom, and internationally, include the designation of marine protected areas and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) with its aim of meeting ‘Good Environmental Status’ (GES) for European seas by 2020. 2. There is growing evidence of climate change impacts on marine biodiversity, which may compromise the effectiveness of any legislation intended to promote sustainable marine resource management. 3. A review of key marine biodiversity legislation relevant to the UK shows climate change was not considered in the drafting of much early legislation. Despite the huge increase in knowledge of climate change impacts in recent decades, legislation is still limited in how it takes these impacts into account. There is scope, however, to account for climate change in implementing much of the legislation through (a) existing references to environmental variability; (b) review cycles; and (c) secondary legislation and complementary policy development. 4. For legislation relating to marine protected areas (e.g. the EC Habitats and Birds Directives), climate change has generally not been considered in the site-designation process, or for ongoing management, with the exception of the Marine (Scotland) Act. Given that changing environmental conditions (e.g. rising temperatures and ocean acidification) directly affect the habitats and species that sites are designated for, how this legislation is used to protect marine biodiversity in a changing climate requires further consideration. 5. Accounting for climate change impacts on marine biodiversity in the development and implementation of legislation is vital to enable timely, adaptive management responses. Marine modelling can play an important role in informing management decisions

Targeting the Replication Initiator of the Second Vibrio Chromosome: Towards Generation of Vibrionaceae-Specific Antimicrobial Agents

The Vibrionaceae is comprised of numerous aquatic species and includes several human pathogens, such as Vibrio cholerae, the cause of cholera. All organisms in this family have two chromosomes, and replication of the smaller one depends on rctB, a gene that is restricted to the Vibrionaceae. Given the increasing prevalence of multi-drug resistance in pathogenic vibrios, there is a need for new targets and drugs to combat these pathogens. Here, we carried out a high throughput cell-based screen to find small molecule inhibitors of RctB. We identified a compound that blocked growth of an E. coli strain bearing an rctB-dependent plasmid but did not influence growth of E. coli lacking this plasmid. This compound, designated vibrepin, had potent cidal activity against V. cholerae and inhibited the growth of all vibrio species tested. Vibrepin blocked RctB oriCII unwinding, apparently by promoting formation of large non-functional RctB complexes. Although vibrepin also appears to have targets other than RctB, our findings suggest that RctB is an attractive target for generation of novel antibiotics that only block growth of vibrios. Vibrio-specific agents, unlike antibiotics currently used in clinical practice, will not engender resistance in the normal human flora or in non-vibrio environmental microorganisms