Advances and challenges of ammonia delivery by urea-water sprays in SCR systems

Over the past decades, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) using aqueous urea sprays as ammonia precursor has become the prevalent technique for NO$_{X}$ emission control in mobile applications. Preparation of ammonia from urea water sprays still represents a challenge in aftertreatment engineering as complex interactions of multi-phase physics and chemical reactions have to be handled. Increasingly stringent emission legislations and the ongoing development of fuel-efficient engines and close-coupled aftertreatment systems raise high demands to SCR systems. Due to highly transient conditions and short mixing lengths, incomplete spray evaporation can result in liquid/wall contact and formation of solid urea deposits lowering ammonia selectivity and homogeneity. This article reviews the ongoing development of SCR systems with focus on the efficient evaporation and decomposition of the injected spray for a homogeneous ammonia distribution in front of the SCR catalyst. Critical aspects of spray evaporation and impingement, liquid film and deposit formation are pointed out and potentials for system optimization are discussed

Bubble Cutting by Cylinder – Elimination of Wettability Effects by a Separating Liquid Film

Experiments and simulations are presented for the interaction of single bubbles rising in a viscous liquid against a horizontal cylinder (Ø = 4 mm) of varying wettability. The slide-off of small and the cutting of larger bubbles into two daughter bubbles observed in the experiment are reproduced by phase-field simulations. It is shown that in the entire process bubble and cylinder are separated by a liquid film, which eliminates any influence of cylinder wettability. Before the mother bubble splits, a thinning gas thread develops below the cylinder. The rupture of this gas thread can lead to a different number of satellite bubbles depending on the conditions

Iron as recyclable energy carrier: Feasibility study and kinetic analysis of iron oxide reduction

Carbon-free and sustainable energy storage solutions are required to mitigate climate change. One possible solution, especially for stationary applications, could be the storage of energy in metal fuels. Energy can be stored through reduction of the oxide with green hydrogen and be released by combustion. In this work a feasibility study for iron as possible metal fuel considering the complete energy cycle is conducted. On the basis of equilibrium calculations it could be shown that the power-to-power efficiency of the iron/iron oxide cycle is 27 %. As technology development requires a more detailed description of both the reduction and the oxidation, a first outlook is given on the kinetic analysis of the reduction of iron oxides with hydrogen. Thermogravimetric experiments using Fe$_2$O$_3$, Fe$_3$O$_4$ and FeO indicate a three-step process for the reduction. The maximum reduction rate can be achieved with a hydrogen content of 25 %. Based on the experimental results a reaction mechanism and accompanied kinetic data were developed for description of Fe$_2$O$_3$ reduction with H$_2$ under varying experimental conditions

Usual energy and macronutrient intakes in 2-9-year-old European children

OBJECTIVE: Valid estimates of population intakes are essential for monitoring trends as well as for nutritional interventions, but such data are rare in young children. In particular, the problem of misreporting in dietary data is usually not accounted for. Therefore, this study aims to provide accurate estimates of intake distributions in European children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional setting-based multi-centre study. SUBJECTS: A total of 9560 children aged 2-9 years from eight European countries with at least one 24-h dietary recall (24-HDR). METHODS: The 24-HDRs were classified in three reporting groups based on age- and sex-specific Goldberg cutoffs (underreports, plausible reports, overreports). Only plausible reports were considered in the final analysis (N=8611 children). The National Cancer Institute (NCI)-Method was applied to estimate population distributions of usual intakes correcting for the variance inflation in short-term dietary data. RESULTS: The prevalence of underreporting (9.5%) was higher compared with overreporting (3.4%). Exclusion of misreports resulted in a shift of the energy and absolute macronutrient intake distributions to the right, and further led to the exclusion of extreme values, that is, mean values and lower percentiles increased, whereas upper percentiles decreased. The distributions of relative macronutrient intakes (% energy intake from fat/carbohydrates/proteins) remained almost unchanged when excluding misreports. Application of the NCI-Method resulted in markedly narrower intake distributions compared with estimates based on single 24-HDRs. Mean percentages of usual energy intake from fat, carbohydrates and proteins were 32.2, 52.1 and 15.7%, respectively, suggesting the majority of European children are complying with common macronutrient intake recommendations. In contrast, total water intake (mean: 1216.7 ml per day) lay below the recommended value for >90% of the children. CONCLUSION: This study provides recent estimates of intake distributions of European children correcting for misreporting as well as for the daily variation in dietary data. These data may help to assess the adequacy of young children's diets in Europe

Kinetic modeling and simulation of high-temperature by-product formation from urea decomposition

The Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technique is widely applied in exhaust gas after-treatment of diesel engines. Depending on operating conditions, injected urea-water solution (UWS) can form liquid films on mixer blades and the pipe wall. Evaporation and subsequent reactions in the wall film can lead to deposits of urea and by-products, respectively. Especially deposits that are not decomposed up to high temperatures are challenging for the SCR technique. Thermogravimetric experiments are conducted for these stable urea by-products, such as ammelide, ammeline and their by-products, such as cyanamide or melamine. An analysis of the evolving gases during thermal decomposition led to a more detailed understanding of the kinetics. The postulated mechanism is able to predict the thermogravimetric analyses results and the effects of variation of the experimental conditions such as initial sample mass and heating rates. The evaluated kinetics, together with the recently developed kinetics for the urea/biuret/triuret/cyanuric acid system Tischer et al. (2019), can now be integrated into CFD simulations of SCR systems to numerically simulate all relevant physical and chemical processes in UWS equipped aftertreatment systems for a wide range of conditions

Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between energy intake and BMI z-score in European children

Background: Evidence for the effect of dietary energy on BMI z-scores in young children is limited. We aim to investigate cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of daily energy intake (EI) on BMI z-scores of European boys and girls considering growth-related height dependencies of EI using residual EI. Methods: To investigate cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of daily energy intake (EI) on BMI z-scores of European boys and girls considering growth-related height dependencies of EI using residual EI. Methods: Subjects were children aged 2-<10 y old (N=2753, 48.2% girls) participating in the IDEFICS (Identification and prevention of Dietary- and lifestyle-induced health EFfects In Children and infantS) baseline and follow-up examination. Usual EI (kcal/day) was calculated based on the National Cancer Institute-method excluding subjects with implausible reported EI. Effect of age, height and sex-adjusted residuals of EI on BMI z-score was investigated stratified by baseline age -group (2-<4 y, 4-<6 y, 6-<8 y and 8-<10 y) cross-sectionally using linear regression models adjusted for relevant confounders (crude model: age, sex, country; fully adjusted model: plus parental ISCED level, parental BMI, screen time; subgroup analysis: plus objectively measured physical activity). Longitudinal associations were estimated between changes in (¿) residual EI per year and ¿BMI z-score per year with adjustments analogously to the cross-sectional models but with additional adjustment for residual EI at baseline. Results: Cross-sectionally, positive associations were observed between residual EI and BMI z-score for the full study sample, for boys and in older (=6years) but not in younger children in the crude and fully adjusted model. Longitudinally, small positive associations were observed between ¿residual EI per y on ¿BMI z-score per y for the full study sample and in 4-<6 y olds in the crude and fully adjusted model. Conclusion: In conclusion, EI above the average intakes for a certain sex, age and height are weakly associated with BMI z-scores in European children. Residual EI may be considered as a useful exposure measure in children as it accounts for growth-related changes in usual EI during childhood

Drying Dynamics of Solution‐Processed Perovskite Thin‐Film Photovoltaics: In Situ Characterization, Modeling, and Process Control

A key challenge for the commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics is the transfer of high‐quality spin coated perovskite thin‐films toward applying industry‐scale thin‐film deposition techniques, such as slot‐die coating, spray coating, screen printing, or inkjet printing. Due to the complexity of the formation of polycrystalline perovskite thin‐films from the precursor solution, efficient strategies for process transfer require advancing the understanding of the involved dynamic processes. This work investigates the fundamental interrelation between the drying dynamics of the precursor solution thin‐film and the quality of the blade coated polycrystalline perovskite thin‐films. Precisely defined drying conditions are established using a temperature‐stabilized drying channel purged with a laminar flow of dry air. The dedicated channel is equipped with laser reflectometry at multiple probing positions, allowing for in situ monitoring of the perovskite solution thin‐film thickness during the drying process. Based on the drying dynamics as measured at varying drying parameters, namely at varying temperature and laminar air flow velocity, a quantitative model on the drying of perovskite thin‐films is derived. This model enables process transfer to industry‐scale deposition systems beyond brute force optimization. Via this approach, homogeneous and pinhole‐free blade coated perovskite thin‐films are fabricated, demonstrating high power conversion efficiencies of up to 19.5% (17.3% stabilized) in perovskite solar cells

Adherence to a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern in children from eight European countries : the IDEFICS study

BACKGROUND: Despite documented benefits of a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern, there is a lack of knowledge about how children from different European countries compare with each other in relation to the adherence to this pattern. In response to this need, we calculated the Mediterranean diet score (MDS) in 2-9-year-old children from the Identification and prevention of dietary-and lifestyle-induced health effects in children and infants (IDEFICS) eight-country study. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Using 24 h dietary recall data obtained during the IDEFICS study (n = 7940), an MDS score was calculated based on the age- and sex-specific population median intakes of six food groups (vegetables and legumes, fruit and nuts, cereal grains and potatoes, meat products and dairy products) and the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fats. For fish and seafood, which was consumed by 10% of the population, one point was given to consumers. The percentages of children with high MDS levels (43) were calculated and stratified by sex, age and by having at least one migrant parent or both native parents. Demographic (sex and age) and socioeconomic characteristics (parental education and income) of children showing high (43) vs low (<= 3) MDS levels were examined. RESULTS: The highest prevalence of children with MDS 43 was found among the Italian pre-school boys (55.9%) and the lowest among the Spanish school-aged girls (26.0%). Higher adherence to a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern was not associated with living in a Mediterranean country or in a highly educated or high-income family, although with some exceptions. Differences in adherence between boys and girls or age groups varied between countries without any general pattern. CONCLUSIONS: With the exception of Italian pre-schoolers, similar adherence levels to a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern have been observed among European children