Choices and Dilemmas: Reproduction of classed and gendered power relations through parental practices

This thesis aims to explore how power relations are reproduced through parental choices and practices in Iceland, with a focus on classed and gendered dimensions. The thesis can be viewed as two separate yet connected parts. In the first part, I ask how parental practices contribute to class reproduction in Iceland, with a focus on school and neighbourhood choices. In the second part, I ask how the “good and worthy” parent is defined, with a focus on gendered family life in pandemic times. Three different datasets are used to achieve this overarching aim. In my exploration of school and neighbourhood choices, I use sixteen interviews with middle- or upper-class parents, thereof one father and fifteen mothers. Alongside these interviews, I use descriptive data on the socio economic background of families within the Reykjavík metropolitan area and families of children in private schools. The third dataset consists of ninety-seven stories of parenthood in pandemic times, collected with story completion method. Together these different datasets make possible a nuanced and diverse analysis of the topic in question. I analyse the data through the theoretical lens of Bourdieu and neoliberal governmentality. In particular, I use Bourdieu’s theories of the reproduction of class to explore if and how the middle class uses symbolic capital to reproduce class distinction, thereby enhancing privilege for their children through school and neighbourhood choices. In addition, I make use of feminist and post structuralist understanding of power relations. In this way I analyse the gendered and classed factors as they are shaped by choices, feelings, dilemmas, actions, words and discourses. Three scientific articles form the backbone of this thesis. Article 1 explores private school choice, Article 2 explores neighbourhood choice, and Article 3 is dedicated to manifestations of neoliberal governmentalities in pandemic parenthood. Together these articles achieve the aim of this thesis. On the whole we see that parenthood is now regarded as a social space that is fraught with dangers and pitfalls. The danger of the parent making the wrong choice of school (Article 1), neighbourhood (Article 2) or daily habits (Article 3) is ever-present. This presents the risk of the parents’ symbolic capital not being transmitted to the children. The instability of the rules of the social space of parenthood fuels this risk, which in turn creates 6 anxiety for the parents in question – in particular the mothers. When this anxiety is triggered, it begets the self-governing by which the neoliberal governmentality operates. Parents (especially mothers) begin to question their every move and to self-govern their choices, habits and feelings. These processes are intimately linked to the construction of the fit mother who must choose wisely, be organised, optimistic and happy. This ethos and this subject positioning of mothers contribute to the reproduction of the gendered and classed power relations in Icelandic society.Rannís og Jafnréttissjóðu

Choosing Private Compulsory Schools : A means for class distinctions or Responsible Parenting?

This study aims to explore the social and ethnic background of pupils admitted to private schools at the compulsory level in Iceland so as to identify possible social class segregation between public and private schools. Additionally, we examine how parents reason their choice of private education for their children. Bourdieu’s concepts of capital, symbolic power and distinction are used to think through our findings. Data consist of descriptive statistics and interviews with parents. Our findings show that many of the private schools attract privileged parents, but that this is contingent upon the schools’ geographical location. Parental discourse links good behaviour and ambition with the private schools, while simultaneously labelling the public schools as failing. Parents who align with the intellectual fraction show signs of experiencing a moral dilemma over their choice. Overall, our findings suggest that to some extent, private schools serve as a tool for educational distinction.Peer reviewe

Even in Iceland? Exploring mothers’ narratives on neighbourhood choice in a perceived classless and feminist utopia

The study explores how mothers in Iceland, a relatively new nation state that is perceived as being gender equal, classless and homogeneous, adapt and respond to international trends of consumer cultures. Building on studies about parental neighbourhood choice, parental practices and reproduction of social class, the study’s aim is to examine the local manifestations of those in an international context. To reach this aim, nine interviews with middle-class mothers who live in either disadvantaged or privileged neighbourhoods in terms of income, education level and ethnicity were analysed. Our findings on middle-class anxiety over class reproduction being mediated by neighbourhood and school choice are in accord with international literature. Our findings depart from the literature in the way that social capital reproduction plays out in the most affluent neighbourhood and the importance the most affluent middle-class mothers put on geographical closeness to their extended families.Icelandic Centre for Research [184857-052]Peer Reviewe

The complexities of the doctoral candidate-supervisor relationship: : Voices of candidates at the University of Iceland

The aim of this study is to examine the complexities of the doctoral candidate–supervisor relationship within the doctoral programme at the University of Iceland through the voices of the doctoral candidates. Numerous studies suggest that doctoral candidates endure a stressful working environment and that one of the most important factors influencing this is the relationship with the supervisor. In this study we have chosen to focus on what doctoral candidates at the University of Iceland value most in communication with their supervisor and where they feel improvements can be made. Findings show that what doctoral candidates value the most is an available, encouraging and supportive supervisor who gives their candidates a sense of autonomy while still providing quality feedback on their work. Candidates who experience inactive, disorganised, dismissive and/or overly controlling supervisors indicate that these factors contribute to their dissatisfaction, anxiety and stress. These patterns are similar across all the University’s five schools. Based on these findings we suggest that doctoral candidates be allocated an ombudsman and that supervisors receive increased support and training.The aim of this study is to examine the complexities of the doctoral candidate–supervisor relationship within the doctoral programme at the University of Iceland through the voices of the doctoral candidates. Numerous studies suggest that doctoral candidates endure a stressful working environment and that one of the most important factors influencing this is the relationship with the supervisor. In this study we have chosen to focus on what doctoral candidates at the University of Iceland value most in communication with their supervisor and where they feel improvements can be made. Findings show that what doctoral candidates value the most is an available, encouraging and supportive supervisor who gives their candidates a sense of autonomy while still providing quality feedback on their work. Candidates who experience inactive, disorganised, dismissive and/or overly controlling supervisors indicate that these factors contribute to their dissatisfaction, anxiety and stress. These patterns are similar across all the University’s five schools. Based on these findings we suggest that doctoral candidates be allocated an ombudsman and that supervisors receive increased support and training.Peer reviewe

“I feel like I’m failing and don’t remember anything”gendered aspects of guilt, anxiety and shame in connection to parental school and leisure work

Hér og víða erlendis hefur krafa á aðkomu foreldra að skólagöngu og tómstundastarfibarna sinna farið vaxandi, en þessi síaukna áhersla virðist ekki hafa verið skoðuð og ræddmeð gagnrýnum hætti hérlendis. Markmið þessarar rannsóknar var að skoða með hvaðahætti samviskubit, kvíði og skömm birtust hjá mæðrum og feðrum í tengslum við skólaog tómstundastarf barna þeirra. Lögð er áhersla á að skilja hvað þessi tilfinningaleguviðbrögð segja okkur um samfélagslegar aðstæður barnafjölskyldna. Gögnum var safnaðmeð eigindlegri spurningakönnun þar sem foreldrar barna á aldrinum 0–18 ára vorubeðnir um að lýsa tilfinningum sínum í tengslum við foreldrahlutverkið. Alls söfnuðust374 svör frá mæðrum og 76 frá feðrum. Gögnin voru greind með aðferð ígrundandiþemagreiningar. Fyrra þema greiningarinnar var „Geri ég þetta rétt?“ Móðirin semábyrgðarmaður heimanáms og tómstunda. Þar greindu mæðurnar frá samviskubiti ogkvíða í tengslum við skóla- og tómstundavinnu, svo sem heimalestur og æfingar. Feðurnirgreindu mun síður frá slíkum tilfinningum á meðan mæðurnar lýstu samviskubitinusem stöðugu. Svörin gáfu sterkar vísbendingar um að þær öxluðu mun meiri ábyrgðá skóla- og tómstundavinnu heldur en feðurnir. Seinna þemað nefndist Allir fjandanstölvupóstarnir: Mæður á þriðju vaktinni. Þar lýstu mæður þeirri hugrænu byrði semþær þyrftu að axla vegna skóla- og tómstundavinnu sinnar og hvernig hún ylli þeimsamviskubiti, kvíða og skömm. Einnig voru dæmi um slík svör frá feðrum en þau vorumun sjaldgæfari. Þessar niðurstöður eru settar í samhengi við hugmyndafræði ákafrarmæðrunar og einstaklingsvæðingu foreldrahlutverksins. Álag á mæðrunum hefurneikvæð áhrif á samskipti innan fjölskyldna og milli foreldra og fagfólks sem er andstætthagsmunum barna og annarra fjölskyldumeðlima.Parents are increasingly expected to cooperate with schools about their children’seducation and be educators in the home. They are also expected to organise the children’sleisure time with sports or other extra-curricular activities. This is also the case herein Iceland but this trend and its ramifications for families has not been scrutinised.Rather, it has been taken as a self-evident truth that this development is positive forfamilies. This study aims to understand in what way guilt, anxiety and shame manifestwith mothers and fathers in connection to their work around the schooling or organisedleisure activities of their children. This refers to anything parents do to support theirchildren in these areas, such as providing homework assistance, driving to a music orsports practice, and attending events. Through exploring these feelings, I aim to shedlight on the social context of families in Iceland and its gendered dimensions.The data was collected through an online qualitative questionnaire where parentsof children aged 0–18 years old were asked to describe their feelings in connectionto parenthood. In total, 374 mothers answered the list, along with 76 fathers. Therespondents were overwhelmingly university-educated and wrote fluent Icelandic. Ianalysed the data using reflexive thematic analysis and constructed two themes.The first theme is “Am I doing this correctly?” Mothers’ responsibility for homeworkand organised leisure activities. This theme revolves around the feelings of anxiety andguilt that the mothers express in connection to the myriad of ways they are expected tosupport their children’s schooling and leisure activities. The fathers, on the other hand,did not express these feelings. As it so happens, throughout this study, I am comparingthe agonising guilt, shame and anxiety of the mothers to the silence of the fathers. Itis clear from the answers that the mothers shoulder the lion’s share of work in supportof their children’s schooling and organised leisure activities. The latter theme is All theBloody Emails: Mothers on the Third Shift. This theme shows the mental load of mothers,which is directly connected to working around school and their children’s extracurricularactivities. This involves, for example, remembering events at school, remembering specialdays at school, and ensuring the child has everything it needs. The mothers comparedthemselves to an imaginary, perfect mother who can remember it all. There were alsosome examples of a mental load from the third shift from the fathers, but this was rare.The analysis implies a highly gendered division of parental work supporting children’sschooling and extra-curricular activities in Iceland. Mothers shoulder the mainresponsibility of assisting with homework and other duties that are connected to thispart of parenting, and this causes high levels of anxiety, guilt and shame. I discuss theseresults in the light of intensive mothering and individualisation of parenting. Mothers aremeant to be extremely involved in all aspects of their children’s lives, which is uncriticallyclaimed to be the best for the child. This is reflected in the increasing demand thatparents be their children’s teachers at home. With the individualisation of parenting, weare made to believe that it is the mothers’ fault if anything goes wrong in their child’slife, and social circumstances are not considered. This heightens the perceived risk ofparenting and creates anxiety and stress in mothers’ lives. The analysis also shows thatthe mentality of intensive mothering risks straining the relationship between mothersand their children, who are meant to be eager about their homework and extra-curricularactivities. When they are not, the mothers’ anxiety, shame and guilt heightens, resultingin fights or negative interactions with their children. Policymakers and professionals whowork with families need to be aware of the mental ramifications of intensive motheringand create a space for parents to resist it, connect, and critically discuss the social pressuremothers are under. The respondents of this study were privileged in terms of education,finances and language and still described immense pressure, anxiety and shame. Further15Netla – Veftímarit um uppeldi og menntun:studies are needed to understand in what way intensive mothering and school and extracurricular activities put pressure on mothers who are in marginalised positions due totheir social class, disability, origin, or other factors.Peer reviewe

‘I am the black duck’ affective aspects of working-class mothers’ involvement in parental communities

Post-printThe aim of this study is to analyse working-class mothers’ narratives of social interactions among parents at their children’s schools. A special focus is paid to the emotions that arise in such interactions and their role in the reproduction of class. A narrative analysis of six stories of white, working-class mothers of compulsory school aged children was carried out. The study is set in Iceland, which gives a unique opportunity for classed and gendered analysis of parental communities as the country is at the forefront of gender equality in the world. Additionally, the compulsory school system is still relatively unsegregated. Findings show that the parental communities reproduce the symbolic violence endured by the working-class mothers within the field of education. Accounts of resistance and anger are present in some of the accounts but affective responses such as inferiority and shame are all-encompassing and contribute to the reproduction of class.Icelandic Gender Equality FundPeer Reviewe

“The time-plan has been ousted and is now in the garage”: Family life and homework in stories about COVID-19

Markmið þessarar rannsóknar var að greina kynjaðar hugmyndir þátttakenda um uppeldishlutverk foreldra sem birtast í sögum um heimanám barna á tímum COVID-19. Gögnum var safnað með sögulokaaðferð í apríl 2020, en þá hafði neyðarstigi verið lýst yfir á Íslandi. Þátttakendur fengu upphaf að sögu sem þeir áttu að ljúka. Þar var söguhetjan ýmist móðir eða faðir sem þurfti að sinna heimanámi með börnum sínum í samkomubanni. Auglýst var eftir þátttakendum á samfélagsmiðlum. Meirihluti þeirra sem tóku þátt voru menntaðar millistéttarkonur og endurspeglar rannsóknin því einkum sjónarhorn þeirra. Alls voru 97 sögur greindar með ígrundaðri þemagreiningu. Fræðilega sjónarhornið var femínískt, þ.e. þemu voru sett í samhengi við ríkjandi orðræður um foreldrahlutverkið í samtímamenningu og skoðað hvernig kynjuð hlutverk afmörkuðu tækifæri og forgangsröðun sögupersóna. Í sögunum var einkum tekist á við orðræðu nýfrjálshyggjunnar um skipulagða foreldrið sem nýtir hvert tækifæri til að hámarka reynslu barnsins svo það verði skilvirkur þegn samfélagsins. Þrjú meginþemu voru greind: (1) Togstreitan um tímann. Þar kom fram að tíminn er kynjapólitísk auðlind. Verkefnamiðuð dagskrá krefst verkstjórnar og yfirlegu sem lenda oft á herðum mæðra. (2) Glíman við heimanámið: Endurmat og (ó)sigrar. Félagsleg staða, m.a. menntun og auðmagn, hefur áhrif á hversu raunhæfar forsendur foreldri hefur til að taka að sér heimanám. Kvíði og sektarkennd fylgir því að ráða ekki við námsefnið. (3) Bugaðir foreldrar rísa upp gegn óraunhæfum kröfum. Þemað lýsir andstöðu foreldra við hamingjuhandrit nýfrjálshyggjunnar þar sem gott foreldri er sér meðvitað um alla þá áhættuþætti sem hafa áhrif á velferð barnsins. Hamingjuna má finna í heimilisóreiðu og námi sem fylgir ekki dagskrá skóla heldur takti heimilisins. Niðurstöður sýna að þær aðstæður sem sköpuðust í samkomubanninu skerpa átakalínur milli heimila og samfélags og átakalínur innan heimila. Þær lýsa einnig kvíða og sektarkennd sem fylgir því að geta ekki fylgt leikreglum nýfrjálshyggjuorðræðunnar.In Western societies the role of the parent has increasingly been framed by neoliberal discourses. The focus is on the parent, especially the professional middle-class mother, as an entrepreneur who makes choices and trains the child with an eye to how it can maximize its potential and become a good citizen. This places a strain on parents, especially working mothers, who juggle their parenting responsibilities with their work outside the home. The COVID-19 epidemic upset these juggling acts and the fine-tuned daily rhythms of many families. In April, 2020, when the study took place, Iceland was in semi-lockdown, with schools running at limited capacity and a ban of gatherings of more than 20 people. Furthermore, many parents did not have access to their usual support in terms of childcare. These times without “precedent” thus provided an interesting moment to explore constructions of parenting, especially in relation to parents’ role in their children’s education and how at times contradictory demands from the home and work were met. This article adopts a feminist poststructuralist perspective to analyse ideas about parenting roles in relation to children’s homework during the COVID-19 epidemic in Iceland. Data was collected using the story-completion method during the period April 7–24, 2020, when a national emergency had been declared in Iceland because of the Corona virus. The story completion method is useful as it provides insight into the sociocultural ideas and discourses people draw on when making sense of a topic. The participants were approached on social media where they were provided with a link directing them to the task on Qualtrics. There the participants were randomly presented with either of two different story stems and asked to complete a story. In the first story stem the main fictional character is a mother who is informed that her children will only be able to stay 2 hours per day at school and she is sent ideas for homework to work on with her children. The other story stem is identical except the main character is a father. In total, 97 stories were collected. The majority of the participants who submitted stories were middle-class, university-educated women and the stories have to be interpreted with that in mind. However, they are an interesting group as they are usually considered to set the norm for good mothering. A recurrent idea running through all the storiesPeer reviewe