Articulating fertilizer subsidy effects on women’s diet quality by food supply source in Mali

Background Mali’s fertilizer subsidy program aims to reduce food insecurity among the nation’s predominantly rural people by jump-starting productivity gains of major crops. This paper contributes to sparse evidence regarding its effects. Methods Theory predicts that agricultural productivity can affect diet quality directly through two channels. The production channel influences the availability of food for household consumption or sale. The income pathway, resulting from sales, leads to household food expenditure. We test this hypothesis by applying propensity score matching methods to farm household survey data collected from 2400 households in Mali in 2018. Results We find that the overall effect of the fertilizer subsidy on women’s dietary diversity is positive in the Niger Delta and negative on the Koutiala Plateau. Further examination by food supply source reveals no subsidy effects on the dietary diversity provided by on-farm production in either zone. The subsidy negatively influences dietary diversity of foods sourced as gifts in the Niger Delta. Subsidy effects on dietary diversity accessed through food purchases are strong and positive in the Niger Delta, but negative on the Koutiala Plateau. The Koutiala Plateau is found in the region of Sikasso, where rising incomes from cotton production, which is the major export crop of the region and of the nation, have been shown not to alleviate poverty and malnutrition (a dilemma known as the “Sikasso Paradox”). Conclusions Our approach reveals that additional income from increased yields stimulated by subsidized fertilizer can enable off-farm purchases of more nutritious food and thereby improve nutritional outcomes for women

The impact of food assistance on food insecure populations during conflict: Evidence from a quasi-experiment in Mali

Mali, a vast landlocked country at the heart of West Africa in the Sahel region, is one of the least developed and most food insecure countries in the world. Mali suffered from a series of political, constitutional and military crises since January 2012, including the loss of government control of northern territories from April 2012 until January 2013. A range of humanitarian aid interventions were scaled up in response to these complex crises. In this study, we exploit data from a unique pre-crisis baseline to evaluate the impact of humanitarian aid on the food security of rural populations. We design a quasi-experimental study based on two survey rounds, five years apart, in the Mopti region in Northern Mali. Data was collected from 66 communities randomly selected from within food-insecure districts. Study outcomes include household expenditures and food consumption and a proxy for child nutritional status (height measurements). We estimate program impact by combining propensity score matching and difference-in-difference. Food assistance was found to increase household non-food and food expenditures and micro-nutrient availability. Disaggregating by degree of conflict exposure showed that the effects on children's height and caloric and micro-nutrient consumption were mostly concentrated in areas not in the immediate vicinity of the conflict, unlike the increase in food expenditures that were driven by households located in close proximity to armed groups. The effects were also concentrated on households receiving at least two forms of food assistance. In villages where armed groups were present, food assistance improved household zinc consumption and also appeared to support food expenditures. Food transfers are thus found to exert a protective effect among food insecure population in conflict context

Agriculture, nutrition and education: On the status and determinants of primary schooling in rural Mali before the crises of 2012

This cross-sectional study examines the status and the determinants of primary education in food insecure areas of Mali. Net and gross enrolment ratios in primary school were between 0.3 and 0.4 for both girls and boys and well below national levels, highlighting a critical gap in terms of access to primary education. Schooling was found to respond to a broad range of determinants, including child's age and nutrition status, as well as on household consumption, on farm labour, teacher availability, and village level remoteness. Interestingly, no significant gender differences were found in terms of primary education. School meals were found to be associated with increased enrolment, attendance and attainment. The scale of the problem in Mali strongly suggests the need for investments in education and social protection to be prioritised and funded as part of national education policy and development strategies

Diverse crops and input subsidies: a village-scale analysis in Mali

An extensive literature assesses the productivity, farm income and fiscal impacts of agricultural input subsidy programmes reintroduced during the 2000s throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as their fiscal sustainability, but less is known about how they affect cropping systems. We examine how fertilizer subsidies relate to one component of agricultural biodiversity – crop species diversity – by applying econometric models to nationally representative, village panel data in Mali. Total subsidized fertilizer received is strongly and negatively associated with crop richness, incentivizing the allocation of land to targeted crops away from other crops. These include cowpea, a neglected species which is grown as both a primary crop and intercrop and has agronomic, nutritional and income-generating benefits for farming families. The richer the crop species in a village, the more probable that cowpea is still grown. Findings are important for development policy in this agriculturally-dependent nation with numerous smallholders living below the poverty line

Fertilizer Subsidy Impact on Sorghum and Maize Productivity in the Sudanian Savanna of Mali

Agricultural intensification is one of the top priorities of the Malian government. Following the food and oil price crisis in 2007-08, the Malian government have since launched a fertilizer subsidy program. The main objectives of the program are to boost national agricultural productivity through increased use of fertilizer and thereby, improve food and nutrition security. The program specifically targets cotton, maize, millet, sorghum, wheat and rice crops. Fertilizer subsidies are the largest expense items, accounting for about 25% of the total rural and agricultural budget (Theriault, Smale, and Assima, Forthcoming). Yet, there is little empirical evidence of the impact of the fertilizer subsidy program on any outcomes, including fertilizer use and productivity

Effects of Fertilizer Subsidies on Women's Diet: Quality by Food Supply Source in Mali

The Malian Government has introduced the Fertilizer Subsidy Program as a policy strategy to increase agricultural productivity and food production with the aim of improving the food security and well-being of smallholder farm households. However, there is a lack of reliable evidence regarding the effects of the subsidy program. We tested the effects of fertilizer subsidies on diet quality of women of reproductive age by applying propensity score matching methods to farm household survey data collected in 2018. We found that subsidized fertilizer has a positive effect on overall women’s dietary diversity in the Niger Delta but is negatively associated with the overall dietary diversity in the Koutiala Plateau. One of the innovations of this study is that the dietary diversity score is broken down according to food supply sources. Analysis by component allows a thorough understanding of the channel through which the subsidized fertilizer program affects women's nutrition outcomes. A close look at the different components of women's dietary diversity reveals no effects on dietary diversity from the consumption of own production in either of the two zones. Analysis showed a negative impact of subsidized fertilizer on dietary diversity sourced from gift food in Niger Delta. Finally, we found that the effect of subsidized fertilizer on the dietary diversity sourced from purchased food was strong and positive in the Niger Delta, but negative in the Koutiala Plateau. The negative results for the Koutiala Plateau are not entirely surprising given the history of the “Sikasso Paradox.” Decomposing diet diversity by food source suggests that income is the main pathway linking subsidized fertilizers program to women’s nutrition outcomes

FARMER FEEDBACK REPORT: INPUT USE (SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, AND HERBICIDES) ON SORGHUM AND MAIZE BY FAMILY FARM ENTERPRISES IN THE SUDANIAN SAVANNA OF MALI

To develop sound agricultural policies, policymakers need accurate empirical evidence on the conditions prevailing in the field that will help document the situation and the impact of ongoing programs through the use of data. Farmers who are testing new technologies and are the primary beneficiaries of agricultural subsidies are fundamental sources information for policymakers. Most farm surveys require hours of preparation and implementation but their findings are not always communicated to respondents for validation purposes. We consider this a loss—since the experts who are the most qualified to validate these findings are the farmers themselves. Thus, farmers are not always given the opportunity to ask questions to researchers and assist in the interpretation of survey findings

Impacts of improved sorghum varieties on farm families in Mali: A Multivalued Treatment Effects approach

Uptake of improved sorghum seed in Mali remains relatively limited, despite the economic importance of the crop. We first explore the adoption by Malian farm families of improved sorghum seed, differentiating between improved varieties and recently released sorghum hybrids, which are based largely on local Guinea materials developed through participatory, on-farm testing. We then examine impacts on farm families with a multivalued treatment effects model. Analysis is based on primary data collected from 628 farm families in the Sudanian Savanna. Reflecting the social organization of production in this region, we test the role of plot manager characteristics (including relationship to household head) as determinants of use. Given that farm family enterprises both consume and sell their sorghum harvests, we consider effects on consumption outcomes as well as yield. We find that plot manager characteristics, in addition to household wealth and labor supply, influence the use of improved varieties. The impact of hybrid use on yields is large and significant, positively affecting household dietary diversity and contributing to a greater share of the harvest sold. However, use of hybrids, as well as improved varieties, is associated with a shift toward 2 consumption of other cereals. Findings support on-farm experimental evidence concerning yield advantages, and suggest that encouraging the use of well-adapted sorghum hybrids may contribute to crop commercialization by smallholders

COUNTERFEIT HERBICIDES AND FARM PRODUCTIVITY IN MALI: A MULTIVALUED TREATMENT APPROACH

Rapid growth in private sector herbicide imports has led to a dramatic rise in use of commercial herbicides by Malian smallholder farmers. Given weak regulatory capacity to monitor markets, the recent proliferation in herbicide products and brands has been accompanied by widespread sales of unregistered products. We test the effects of herbicides applied to Mali’s major dryland cereals, sorghum and maize, on yield and labor productivity, differentiated by gender and age. We employ a multivalued treatment model with data collected from 623 households and 1273 plots. Findings show negative effects of unregistered herbicides on yields. In contrast, the use of registered herbicides enhances labor productivity of adult male and children. However, we find no significant effects on registered herbicides on yields or labor productivity of women

RESTITUTION DE L’ENQUETE IER/MSU/2017-18 AUPRES DES MENAGES AGRICOLES SUR L’UTILISATION DES INTRANTS DANS LA ZONE DU PLATEAU DE KOUTIALA

Mamadou Sissoko Amidou Assima Naman Keita Yenizie Kon