Changes in Health Perceptions after Exposure to Human Suffering: Using Discrete Emotions to Understand Underlying Processes

Background: The aim of this study was to examine whether exposure to human suffering is associated with negative changes in perceptions about personal health. We further examined the relation of possible health perception changes, to changes in five discrete emotions (i.e., fear, guilt, hostility/anger, and joviality), as a guide to understand the processes underlying health perception changes, provided that each emotion conveys information regarding triggering conditions. Methodology/Findings: An experimental group (N = 47) was exposed to images of human affliction, whereas a control group (N = 47) was exposed to relaxing images. Participants in the experimental group reported more health anxiety and health value, as well as lower health-related optimism and internal health locus of control, in comparison to participants exposed to relaxing images. They also reported more fear, guilt, hostility and sadness, as well as less joviality. Changes in each health perception were related to changes in particular emotions. Conclusion: These findings imply that health perceptions are shaped in a constant dialogue with the representations about the broader world. Furthermore, it seems that the core of health perception changes lies in the acceptance that personal well-being is subject to several potential threats, as well as that people cannot fully control many of the factors the determine their own well-being

The Effects of Relaxation Training Exercises on the Control of Diabetes Mellitus.

The present study was primarily designed to test whether adding a relaxation training technique to the medical treatment of diabetes would lead to an improvement in the diabetic condition. A secondary purpose was to determine whether the State and Trait anxiety of individuals suffering from diabetes would be affected by participating in this program. Two separate main studies were developed, both involving patients with Type I and II diabetes mellitus. Forty-eight patients participated in the first study and they were randomly allocated to either an Experimental or a Standard Control group, for eight weekly sessions. The Experimental group participated in 8 sessions of relaxation training, while the Control group did not receive any training or any additional instructions. The subjects in both groups continued their regular medical treatment during the experimental period. In addition the State and Trait Anxiety Inventory was administered to the participants before and after the experimental period, also various physiological variables, which were good indices of diabetic control, were measured. The participants in the Experimental group filled the Daily Diary Check List and the Mood Adjective Check List. As expected the dependent psychological and physiological variables revealed significant differences for the patients in the Experimental group, between the pre- and postmeasurements. While non-significant differences were found for the Control group. The second study was developed to ensure that the experimenter has a similar level of interaction with both Experimental and Control groups. In case any effect in the first experimental study has caused any differences between the two groups. Forty-Eight diabetics were the participants of the second study, allocated to either an Experimental or a Placebo group, for eight weekly individual sessions. The same procedure was followed for the second study. The patients in the Placebo group received 8 sessions of blood circulation exercises. Furthermore, the same psychological and physiological measurements, as the ones measured in the first study, were collected during the second study. As expected, the psychological as well as the majority of the physiological variables revealed significant differences for the patients in the Experimental group. In addition emotions and mood improved over time. Non-significant changes were found for the Placebo group. These results give support to the findings of the first study. A follow-up study was carried-out 18 months, after the end of the second experimental study, which indicated that patients in the Experimental group maintained their gains while this was not the case for the Placebo group. The study's major finding that relaxation training can help to reduce a diabetic's state anxiety as well of some of the main metabolic parameters, has implications for the treatment of diabetes. Explanations of the possible relationships of the results obtained are provided. Clinical applications and recommendations for future research are also included

A Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Applied to a Social Anxiety Disorder and a Specific Phobia, Case Study.

George, a 23-year-old Greek student, was referred by a psychiatrist for treatment to a University Counseling Centre in Athens. He was diagnosed with social anxiety disorder and specific phobia situational type. He was complaining of panic attacks and severe symptoms of anxiety. These symptoms were triggered when in certain social situations and also when travelling by plane, driving a car and visiting tall buildings or high places. His symptoms lead him to avoid finding himself in such situations, to the point that it had affected his daily life. George was diagnosed with social anxiety disorder and with specific phobia, situational type (in this case acrophobia) and was given 20 individual sessions of cognitivebehavior therapy. Following therapy, and follow-up occurring one month post treatment, George no longer met the criteria for social phobia and symptoms leading to acrophobia were reduced. He demonstrated improvements in many areas including driving a car in and out of Athens and visiting tall buildings

Post-experiment Correlations (Pearson's r) of Health Perceptions Changes to Discrete Emotions Changes for the Experimental and the Control Group.

<p>The Post-experiment Correlations (Pearson's r) of Health Perceptions Changes to Discrete Emotions Changes (Pre-Post Experiment) for Each Group.</p>†<p><i>p</i> = .06, * <i>p</i><.05, ** <i>p</i><.01.</p

Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations of Health Perceptions and Emotions.

<p>Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations of Health Perceptions and Emotions for the Entire Sample Before the Experiment (N = 94).</p><p><i>Note.</i> SD = Standard deviation. HLoC = Health locus of control.</p>†<p><i>p</i><.10, * <i>p</i><.05, ** <i>p</i><.01.</p

The Significant Mean Differences Among the Experimental and the Control Group.

<p>The mean differences among the experimental and the control group before and after the experiment as derived from the repeated measured MANOVA, the corresponding t-tests and confidence intervals.</p><p><i>Note.</i> HLoC = Health locus of control.</p>*<p><i>p</i><.05, ** <i>p</i><.01, *** <i>p</i><.001.</p

Personal Health Perceptions and the Specific Emotions Before and After the Experiment.

<p>Means and Standard Deviations (in Parentheses).</p><p><i>Note.</i> HLoC = Health locus of control.</p