Response to Bonfiglio, L. Notes and Discussions on Marra, A.C. Evolution of Endemic Species, Ecological Interactions and Geographical Changes in an Insular Environment: A Case Study of Quaternary Mammals of Sicily (Italy, EU). Geosciences 2013, 3, 114–139.

In the following discussion, the author replies to the critical notes by Bonfiglio and demonstrates that they did not discredit the reliability and the accuracy of her paper [1]

Pleistocene Hippopotamuses of Mediterranean islands: looking for ancestors

Al registre fossilífer del Pleistocè de les illes mediterrànies es coneixen hipopòtams que presenten adaptacions als ambients insulars: Hippopotamus pentlandi a Sicília i Malta, Hippopotamus melitensis a Malta, Hippopotamus cteutzburgi a Creta, Phanourios minutus a Xipre. Hi ha incerteses en la recerca dels ancestres dels hipopòtams insulars, les quals es deuen al desenvolupament de caràcters endèmics i a la confusió existent a la sistemàtica de les espècies continentals europees. A aquest treball es compara la morfologia craniana i la biometria dels hipopòtams insulars del Pleistocè amb la de les espècies continentals, i s'introdueix una discussió sobre la seva sistemàtica. Hippopotamus amphibius podria ser l'ancestre d' Hippopotamus pentlandi, el qual a la seva volta podria ser l'ancestre d'Hippopotamus melitensis. Hippopotamus antiquus sembla ser ]'ancestre d'Hippopotamus creutzburgi. Les característiques de Phanourios minutus similars a amphibius podrien estar relacionades amb una relació filogenètica amb aquesta espècie.Hippopotamuses, having endemic adaptations related to insular environment, are known in the Pleistocene fossil record of Mediterranean islands: Hippopotamus pentlandi in Sicily and Malta, Hippopotamus melitensis in Malta, Hippopotamus creutzburgi in Crete, Phanourios minutus in Cyprus. The uncertainties in searching for ancestors of the insular hippopotamuses are caused by the development of endemic characters and by the confusion in the systematics of European mainland species. In this paper, skull morphology and biometry of Pleistocene insular hippopotamuses are compared with those of mainland species, introducing a discussion on their systematic. Hippopotamus amphibius could be the ancestor of Hippopotamus pentlandi, which in its turn could be the ancestor of Hippopotamus melitensis. Hippopotamus antiquus seems to be the ancestor of Hippopotamus creutzburgi. The amphibius-like characters of Phanourios minutus could be related to a relationship with this species

FIRST RECORD OF DUGONGIDAE (MAMMALIA: SIRENIA) FROM THE FLORESTA CALCARENITES FORMATION (LATE BURDIGALIAN – EARLY LANGHIAN, REGGIO CALABRIA, SOUTHERN ITALY)

A sirenian rib has been recovered at Motta San Giovanni (Reggio Calabria) in the “Floresta Calcarenites”, a Formation cropping out in Sicily and Calabria and dated late Burdigalian-Langhian. Although the rib is not a diagnostic bone for taxonomy, its presence in southern Calabria extends the knowledge about the paleobiogeography of the Family Dugongidae in the Mediterranean basin. The find is hitherto the only record of sirenians in the Floresta calcarenites. Moreover, the specimen extends back to the Early-Middle Miocene (late Burdigalian-Langhian) the occurrence of sirenians in Calabria, previously determined thanks to substantial material from the Late Miocene (Tortonian) of the Monte Poro area (Vibo Valentia).  The paleoenvironment of the Floresta calcarenites was a warm and shallow sea, consistent with the paleoecology of Dugongidae

Seismic response of the geologically complex alluvial valley at the "Europarco Business Park" (Rome - Italy) through instrumental records and numerical modelling

The analysis of the local seismic response in the “Europarco Business Park”, a recently urbanized district of Rome (Italy) developed over the alluvial valley of the “Fosso di Vallerano” stream, is here presented. A high-resolution geological model, reconstructed over 250 borehole log-stratigraphies, shows a complex and heterogeneous setting of both the local Plio- Pleistocene substratum and the Holocene alluvia. The local seismo-stratigraphy is derived by a calibration process performed through 1D numerical modelling, accounting for: i) 55 noise measurements, ii) 10 weak motion records obtained through a temporary velocimetric array during the August 2009 L’Aquila- Gran Sasso seismic sequence and iii) one cross-hole test available from technical report. Based on the reconstructed seismo- stratigraphy, the local seismic bedrock is placed at the top of a gravel layer that is part of the Pleistocene deposits and it does not correspond to the local geological bedrock represented by Plio-Pleistocene marine deposits. 1D amplification functions were derived via numerical modelling along three representative sections that show how in the Fosso di Vallerano area two valleys converge into a single one moving from SE toward NW. The obtained results reveal a main resonance at low frequency (about 0.8 Hz) and several higher resonance modes, related to the local geological setting. Nonlinear effects are also modelled by using strong motion inputs from the official regional dataset and pointed out a general down-shift (up to 0.5 Hz) of the principal modes of resonance as well as an amplitude reduction of the amplification function at frequencies higher than 7 Hz

Alzheimer's Proteins, Oxidative Stress, and Mitochondrial Dysfunction Interplay in a Neuronal Model of Alzheimer's Disease

In this paper, we discuss the interplay between beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptide, Tau fragments, oxidative stress, and mitochondria in the neuronal model of cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) in which the molecular events reminiscent of AD are activated. The identification of the death route and the cause/effect relationships between the events leading to death could be helpful to manage the progression of apoptosis in neurodegeneration and to define antiapoptotic treatments acting on precocious steps of the death process. Mitochondrial dysfunction is among the earliest events linked to AD and might play a causative role in disease onset and progression. Recent studies on CGNs have shown that adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) impairment, due to interaction with toxic N-ter Tau fragment, contributes in a significant manner to bioenergetic failure and mitochondrial dysfunction. These findings open a window for new therapeutic strategies aimed at preserving and/or improving mitochondrial function

Transport and metabolism of l-lactate occur in mitochondria from cerebellar granule cells and are modified in cells undergoing low potassium dependent apoptosis

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LARGE MAMMAL REMAINS FROM THE LATE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS OF SICILY: NEW STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE FROM THE WESTERN EDGE OF THE HYBLEAN PLATEAU (SOUTHEASTERN SICILY)

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Cytochrome c is released from mitochondria in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent fashion and can operate as a ROS scavenger and as a respiratory substrate in cerebellar neurons undergoing excitotoxic death

In rat cerebellar granule cells both reactive oxygen species production and release of cytochrome c take place during glutamate toxicity. This investigation was aimed (i) to ascertain whether and how these two processes are related and (ii) to gain insight into the role played by the released cytochrome c in the onset of neurotoxicity. Cytochrome c release takes place owing to the generation of reactive oxygen species both in glutamate-treated cerebellar granule cells and in sister control cultures incubated in the presence of the reactive oxygen species-generating system consisting of xanthine plus xanthine oxidase. In the early phase of neurotoxicity (30-min glutamate exposure) about 40% of the maximum (as measured at 3 h of glutamate exposure) cytochrome c release was found to occur in cerebellar granule cells from mitochondria that were essentially coupled and intact and that had a negligible production of oxygen free radicals. Contrarily, mitochondria from cells treated with glutamate for 3 h were mostly uncoupled and produced reactive oxygen species at a high rate. The cytosolic fraction containing the released cytochrome c was able to transfer electrons from superoxide anion to molecular oxygen via the respiratory chain and was found to partially prevent glutamate toxicity when added externally to cerebellar neurons undergoing necrosis. In the light of these findings, we propose that in the early phase of neurotoxicity, cytochrome c release can be part of a cellular and mitochondrial defense mechanism against oxidative stress

Effect of Compatibilisers on Mechanical, Barrier and Antimicrobial Properties of iPP/ZnO Nano/Microcomposites for Food Packaging Application

It is investigated the effects of the addition of three PPgMA, with different molecular weight and maleic anhydride content, on the structure, morphology, mechanical, thermal and antimicrobial properties and oxygen permeability of iPP/ZnO 98/2 wt% composite. The composition of iPP/PPgMA/ZnO composites is fixed at 88/10/2 wt%, that is, about 10 wt% of iPP is substituted with PPgMA. The composites are prepared via melt mixing by using a twin-screw extruder. The ZnO is obtained in a preindustrial scale spray pyrolysis platform. The Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy indicates that the ZnO particles, in all the ternary composites, react with maleic anhydride groups of PPgMA. From the analyses of the mechanical properties, permeability to oxygen and antibacterial activity agaist E.Coli, it is concluded that the best compatibiliser among the three is PPgMA with 1.4% of MA and Mw 65,000, but the antibacterial activity is much lower than that of the binary iPP/ZnO 98/2 wt%. Moreover, it is found that the antibacterial activity is more efficient for the film that presents clusters of the ZnO particles on the surface than the film with ZnO particles smaller and better distributed on the film surface, and embedded in it

Graphene-based dental adhesive with anti-biofilm activity

BACKGROUND: Secondary caries are considered the main cause of dental restoration failure. In this context, anti-biofilm and bactericidal properties are desired in dental materials against pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans. To this purpose, graphene based materials can be used as fillers of polymer dental adhesives. In this work, we investigated the possibility to use as filler of dental adhesives, graphene nanoplatelets (GNP), a non toxic hydrophobic nanomaterial with antimicrobial and anti-biofilm properties. RESULTS: Graphene nanoplatelets have been produced starting from graphite intercalated compounds through a process consisting of thermal expansion and liquid exfoliation. Then, a dental adhesive filled with GNPs at different volume fractions has been produced through a solvent evaporation method. The rheological properties of the new experimental adhesives have been assessed experimentally. The adhesive properties have been tested using microtensile bond strength measurements (µ-TBS). Biocidal activity has been studied using the colony forming units count (CFU) method. The anti-biofilm properties have been demonstrated through FE-SEM imaging of the biofilm development after 3 and 24 h of growth. CONCLUSIONS: A significantly lower vitality of S. mutans cells has been demonstrated when in contact with the GNP filled dental adhesives. Biofilm growth on adhesive-covered dentine tissues demonstrated anti-adhesion properties of the produced materials. µ-TBS results demonstrated no significant difference in µ-TBS between the experimental and the control adhesive. The rheology tests highlighted the necessity to avoid low shear rate regimes during adhesive processing and application in clinical protocol, and confirmed that the adhesive containing the 0.2%wt of GNPs possess mechanical properties comparable with the ones of the control adhesive