Light microphotographs of <i>Ascosphaera fimicola</i>.

<p>A) two opaque, iridescent spore cysts still attached to hyphae. B–C) close-up of spore cyst showing maculate wall, D) ellipsoid ascospores with a few small granules attached to their surface. E) spore ball. A, photographed from <i>A.A. Wynns 5167</i>; B–C, E from <i>A.A. Wynns 5130</i>; D from <i>J.P. Skou</i> s.n. (paratype). Scale bars: A = 500 µm, B = 20 µm, C = 10 µm, D = 5, µm E = 15 µm.</p

Ascosphaera callicarpa.

<p>A) habitat. <i>Phragmites</i> reeds and female <i>Chelostoma florisomne</i> returning with pollen for her brood. B) fecal pellet of <i>C. florisomne</i> larva covered with spore cysts; pale spore balls are visible through the transparent spore cyst wall. C) close-up of spore cyst showing spore balls and smooth, unornamented spore cyst wall. D) spore balls. E) bacilliform ascospores. B, photographed from <i>A.A. Wynns 5168</i>; C–E from <i>A.A. Wynns 5166</i>. Scale bars: B = 200 µm, C = 50 µm, C = 10 µm, D = 15 µm, E = 10 µm.</p

Light microphotographs of <i>Ascosphaera tenax, A. atra</i>, <i>A. major</i>, and <i>A. apis</i>.

<p><i>Ascosphaera tenax</i> A) ascospores. B) punctate spore cyst wall.; <i>A. atra</i> C) broken spore cyst with ascospores.; <i>A. major</i> D) ascospores with attached granules. E) close-up of spore cyst wall.; <i>A. apis</i> F) ascospores. G) detail of pale spore cyst wall with minute spots. A–B photographed from holotype; C from ARSEF 693; D from <i>A.A. Wynns 5170</i>; E from <i>A.A. Wynns 5175</i>; F from <i>A.A. Wynns 5174</i>. Scale bars A = 5 µm, B–C = 10 µm, D = 5 µm, E–F = 10 µm.</p

Light microphotographs of <i>Ascosphaera aggregata</i> and <i>A. proliperda</i>.

<p><i>Ascosphaera aggregata</i> A) ascopores. B) culture on V8 agar medium showing pale buff mycelium.; <i>A. proliperda</i> C) ascospores. D) culture on SDA showing white mycelium and scattered black spore cysts. E–F) bee larvae with chalkbrood caused by <i>A. aggregata</i>. E) fresh <i>Chelostoma florisomne</i> cadaver showing mature (black) and immature (white) spore cysts below the cuticle. F) dry <i>Osmia bicornis</i> larva swollen from fungal growth and spore cyst production below the cuticle. G) aerial hyphae and spore cysts on bee larva with chalkbrood caused by <i>A. proliperda</i>. A, photographed from <i>A.A. Wynns 5144</i>; B from <i>A.A. Wynns 5162</i>; C from <i>A.A. Wynns 5055</i>. Scale bars: A = 10 µm, B = 2 cm, C = 5 µm, D = 825 µm, E = 2 mm, F = 1 mm, G = 2 mm.</p

Distribution, host and substrate reports of <i>Ascosphaera</i> species in Europe.

*<p>newly reported in present study.</p

The Ascomycota Tree of Life: A phylum-wide phylogeny clarifies the origin and evolution of fundamental reproductive and ecological traits:a phylum-wide phylogeny clarifies the origin and evolution of fundamental reproductive and ecological traits

We present a 6-gene, 420-species maximum-likelihood phylogeny of Ascomycota, the largest phylum of Fungi. This analysis is the most taxonomically complete to date with species sampled from all 15 currently circumscribed classes. A number of superclass-level nodes that have previously evaded resolution and were unnamed in classifications of the Fungi are resolved for the first time. Based on the 6-gene phylogeny we conducted a phylogenetic informativeness analysis of all 6 genes and a series of ancestral character state reconstructions that focused on morphology of sporocarps, ascus dehiscence, and evolution of nutritional modes and ecologies. A gene-by-gene assessment of phylogenetic informativeness yielded higher levels of informativeness for protein genes (RPB1, RPB2, and TEF1) as compared with the ribosomal genes, which have been the standard bearer in fungal systematics. Our reconstruction of sporocarp characters is consistent with 2 origins for multicellular sexual reproductive structures in Ascomycota, once in the common ancestor of Pezizomycotina and once in the common ancestor of Neolectomycetes. This first report of dual origins of ascomycete sporocarps highlights the complicated nature of assessing homology of morphological traits across Fungi. Furthermore, ancestral reconstruction supports an open sporocarp with an exposed hymenium (apothecium) as the primitive morphology for Pezizomycotina with multiple derivations of the partially (perithecia) or completely enclosed (cleistothecia) sporocarps. Ascus dehiscence is most informative at the class level within Pezizomycotina with most superclass nodes reconstructed equivocally. Character state reconstructions support a terrestrial, saprobic ecology as ancestral. In contrast to previous studies, these analyses support multiple origins of lichenization events with the loss of lichenization as less frequent and limited to terminal, closely related species.Organismic and Evolutionary Biolog