Modelling the thermo-mechanical volume change behaviour of compacted expansive clays

Compacted expansive clays are often considered as a possible buffer material in high-level deep radioactive waste disposals. After the installation of waste canisters, the engineered clay barriers are subjected to thermo-hydro-mechanical actions in the form of water infiltration from the geological barrier, heat dissipation from the radioactive waste canisters, and stresses generated by clay swelling under almost confined conditions. The aim of the present work is to develop a constitutive model that is able to describe the behaviour of compacted expansive clays under these coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical actions. The proposed model is based on two existing models: one for the hydro-mechanical behaviour of compacted expansive clays and another for the thermo-mechanical behaviour of saturated clays. The elaborated model has been validated using the thermo-hydro-mechanical test results on the compacted MX80 bentonite. Comparison between the model prediction and the experimental data show that this model is able to reproduce the main features of volume changes: heating at constant suction and pressure induces either expansion or contraction; the mean yield stress changes with variations of suction or temperature

Controlling suction by vapour equilibrium technique at different temperatures, application to the determination of the water retention properties of MX80 clay

Problems related to unsaturated soils are frequently encountered in geotechnical or environmental engineering works. In most cases, for the purpose of simplicity, the problems are studied by considering the suction effects on volume change or shear strength under isothermal conditions. Under isothermal condition, very often, a temperature independent water retention curve is considered in the analysis, which is obviously a simplification. When the temperature changes are too significant to be neglected, it is necessary to account for the thermal effects. In this paper, a method for controlling suction using the vapour equilibrium technique at different temperatures is presented. First, calibration of various saturated saline solutions was carried out from temperature of 20°C to 60°C. A mirror psychrometer was used for the measurement of relative humidity generated by saturated saline solutions at different temperatures. The results obtained are in good agreement with the data from the literature. This information was then used to determine the water retention properties of MX80 clay, which showed that the retention curve is shifting down with increasing of temperature

Preliminary laboratory thermo-hydro-mechanical characterization of Opalinus clay

International audienceArgillite is being considered as a possible host rock for geological radioactive waste disposal in several countries. In the present work, Opalinus clay, taken from the Mont Terri Rock laboratory (Switzerland) was tested. A triaxial compression test was performed under saturated conditions. It was observed that preparing a specimen for triaxial test (38 mm in diameter and 76 mm in height) may induce certain damage on the material. In addition, when saturating the specimen under its in situ stress (2 MPa), a volumetric swell of 1.2 % occurred. The swelling process continued even after 200 h of saturation. The results suggest that the variability of mechanical properties of Opalinus clay obtained from existing studies is related to the damage induced during the preparation of specimens on the one hand and the saturation on the other hand. Secondly, a possible effect of heating (which would be generated by the radioactive waste canister in the conditions of waste disposal) on the mechanical behaviour was also tested. A soil specimen, having a suction of 39 MPa was subjected to a heating/cooling cycle (temperature increased from 25 to 60°C and then decreased to 25°C) under a low confining pressure (0.1 MPa). The results show that heating induced first a thermal dilation. When the temperature was maintained at 60°C, a decrease of the soil volume was observed. The subsequent cooling induced a decrease of the soil volume with the same thermal dilation coefficient obtained during the heating. The thermal behavior of Opalinus clay (thermal dilation and then contraction during heating) is then similar to that usually observed on clays. Further studies on the temperature effects are needed to clarify this behaviour

Microstructural characterization of a Canadian oil sand

The microstructure of oil sand samples extracted at a depth of 75 m from the estuarine Middle McMurray formation (Alberta, Canada) has been investigated by using high resolution 3D X-Ray microtomography ($\mu$CT) and Cryo Scanning Electron Microscopy (CryoSEM). $\mu$CT images evidenced some dense areas composed of highly angular grains surrounded by fluids that are separated by larger pores full of gas. 3D Image analysis provided in dense areas porosity values compatible with in-situ log data and macroscopic laboratory determinations, showing that they are representative of intact states. $\mu$CT hence provided some information on the morphology of the cracks and disturbance created by gas expansion. The CryoSEM technique, in which the sample is freeze fractured within the SEM chamber prior to observation, provided pictures in which the (frozen) bitumen clearly appears between the sand grains. No evidence of the existence of a thin connate water layer between grains and the bitumen, frequently mentioned in the literature, has been obtained. Bitumen appears to strongly adhere to the grains, with some grains completely being coated. The curved shape of some bitumen menisci suggests a bitumen wet behaviour

Effects of the maximum soil aggregates size and cyclic wetting-drying on the stiffness of a lime-treated clayey soil

International audienceLime treatment is a well-known technique to improve the mechanical response of clayey subgrades of road pavements or clayey soils used for embankment. Several studies show that lime treatment significantly modifies the physical and hydro-mechanical properties of compacted soils. Nevertheless, studies on the scale effect under climatic changes are scarce. Actually, wetting-drying cycles might significantly modify the microstructure of treated soils, giving rise to changes in hydro-mechanical properties. This modification could be dependent on the size of soil aggregates before lime treatment. In the present work, this scale effect was studied by investigating the stiffness of a compacted lime-treated clayey soil using bender elements. The studied soil was first air-dried and ground into a target maximum soil aggregates size (Dmax). For each aggregates size, the soil was humidified to reach the target water contents wi, then mixed with 3% of lime powder (mass of lime divided by mass of dried soil) prior to the static compaction at a dry density of 1.60 Mg/m3. Two initial water contents (wi = 14 and 18%) and four maximum soil aggregates sizes (Dmax = 0.4, 1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 mm) were considered. After the compaction, the soil specimen (50 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height) was covered by plastic film in order to prevent soil moisture changes. The soil stiffness was then monitored at variable time intervals until reaching stabilisation. Afterwards, the soil specimen was subjected to full saturation followed by air-drying to come back to its initial water content. The results show that: i) the soil stiffness after lime-treatment is significantly dependent on the aggregates size: the finer the aggregates the higher the soil stiffness; ii) the effect of initial water content on the stiffness is negligible and iii) the wetting-drying cycles seem to slightly increase the soil stiffness in the case of lime-treated specimens and decrease the soil stiffness in the case of untreated specimens. Furthermore, when an intensive drying was applied reducing the soil water content lower than the initial one, the soil stiffness decreased drastically after the subsequent wetting

On the Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Behaviour of a Sheared Callovo-Oxfordian Claystone Sample with Respect to the EDZ Behaviour

International audienceTo better understand the impact of temperature elevation on the response of the excavation damaged zone around repository cells and galleries for radioactive waste disposal, the combined effects of shear and temperature elevation were investigated in the laboratory on the Cal-lovo-Oxfordian claystone. To do so, a hollow cylinder thermal triaxial cell with short drainage path specifically developed for low permeability rocks was used. Once properly saturated under stress conditions close to in situ, the specimen was sheared along a constant effective mean stress path mimicking the stress path followed during gallery excavation. The shear stress was afterwards released and an undrained heating test was performed on the sheared specimen. It was observed that the temperature increase under undrained conditions led to a thermal increase in pore water pressure resulting in a decrease in mean effective stress that brought back the sheared specimen to failure, evidencing a thermally induced failure. Steady state radial permeability tests performed at various stages of the test demonstrated that the overall permeability of the sheared specimen was comparable to that before shearing, confirming the excellent self-sealing properties of the Callovo-Oxfordian claystone. This shows that, in spite of being possibly remobilised by temperature elevation, the EDZ will keep an overall permeability constant equal to that of the massive rock, keeping the same isolation properties

Investigating the time-dependent behaviour of Boom clay under thermo-mechanical loading

Among the various laboratory studies to investigate the Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical (THM) behaviour of Boom clay, relatively few were devoted to the time dependent behaviour, limiting any relevant analysis of the long-term behaviour of the disposal facility. The present work aims at investigating the time-dependent behaviour of Boom clay under both thermal and mechanical loading. High-pressure triaxial tests at controlled temperatures were carried out for this purpose. The tests started with constant-rate thermal and/or mechanical consolidation and ended with isobar heating and/or isothermal compression at a constant stress rate or by step loading. Significant effects of temperature as well as of compression and heating rates were observed on the volume change behaviour. After being loaded to a stress lower than the pre-consolidation pressure (5 MPa) at a low temperature of 25\degree C and at a rate lower than 0.2 kPa/min, the sample volume changes seemed to be quite small, suggesting a full dissipation of pore water pressure. By contrast, after being subjected to high loading and heating rates (including step loading or step heating), the volume changes appeared to be significant, particularly in the case of stresses much higher than the pre-consolidation pressure. Due to low permeability, full consolidation of Boom clay required a long period of time and it was difficult to distinguish consolidation and creep from the total volume change with time

Experimental study on the cyclic resistance of a natural loess from Northern France

In order to analyze the instability phenomenon observed along the Northern High Speed Line of R\'eseau Ferr\'e de France (RFF), soil blocks were taken at a site near the railway, at four different depths (1.2, 2.2, 3.5 and 4.9 m). Cyclic triaxial tests were carried out on saturated and unsaturated soil specimens. The results from tests on initially saturated specimens showed that the soil taken at 2.2 m depth has the lowest resistance to cyclic loading, in relation to its highest porosity and lowest clay fraction. This soil was then studied at unsaturated state with various initial water contents. Unsaturated soil specimens were first subjected to cyclic loadings to decrease their volume. These cyclic loadings was stopped when the volume decrease was approximately equal to the initial pore air volume, or when the pores filled by air were eliminated and the soil was considered to become saturated. Afterwards, the back-pressure tubing was saturated with de-aired water and cycles were applied under undrained condition. Significant effect of initial water content was evidenced: the lower the initial water content, the higher the cyclic resistance. This can be explained by the densification of the soil during the initial cyclic loadings

Effects of aggregate size on water retention capacity and microstructure of lime-treated silty soil

International audienceLime treatment is a common technique of improving the workability and geotechnical properties of soils. In this study, the aggregate size effects on the water retention capacity and microstructure of lime-treated soil were investigated. Two soil powders with different maximum aggregate sizes (D max = 0·4 and 5 mm) were prepared and stabilised by 2% lime (by weight of dry soil). Soil samples were prepared by compaction at dry side of optimum water content (w = 17%) with a dry density of 1·65 Mg/m 3. Suction and pore size distribution were determined after different curing periods. The results obtained show that: (a) the treated soil with smaller D max presents relatively smaller modal sizes and lower frequency of macropores (10–330 μm); (b) lime addition effectively improves the soil water retention capacity and decreases both the modal sizes of macro-and micropores gradually over time. Moreover, a higher air entry value and larger water retention capacity were also observed for a smaller D max value, in agreement with the pore size distributions

Desiccation and cracking behaviour of clay layer from slurry state under wetting-drying cycles

International audienceLaboratory tests were conducted to investigate the effect of wetting-drying (W-D) cycles on the initiation and evolution of cracks in clay layer. Four identical slurry specimens were prepared and subjected to five subsequent W-D cycles. The water evaporation, surface cracks evolution and structure evolution during the W-D cycles were monitored. The effect of W-D cycles on the geometric characteristics of crack patterns was analyzed by image processing. The results show that the desiccation and cracking behaviour was significantly affected by the applied W-D cycles: the measured cracking water content c, surface crack ratio Rsc and final thickness hf of the specimen increased significantly in the first three W-D cycles and then tended to reach equilibrium; the formed crack patterns after the second W-D cycle were more irregular than that after the first W-D cycle; the increase of surface cracks was accompanied by the decrease of pore volume shrinkage during drying. In addition, it was found that the applied W-D cycles resulted in significant rearrangement of specimen structure: the initially homogeneous and non-aggregated structure was converted to a clear aggregated-structure with obvious inter-aggregate pores after the second W-D cycle; the specimen volume generally increased with increasing cycles due to the aggregation and increased porosity. The image analysis results show that the geometric characteristics of crack pattern were significantly influenced by the W-D cycles, but this influence was reduced after the third cycle. This is consistent with the observations over the experiment, and indicates that the image processing can be used for quantitatively analyzing the W-D cycle dependence of clay desiccation cracking behaviour