Genetic Overview of the Maya Populations: Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups

We identified the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups A, B, C and D in 75 present-day Maya individuals, 24 Maya individuals of the colonial period and one pre-Columbian Maya individual from Quintana Roo, Mexico. We examined these data together with those of 21 Maya populations accounting for 647 present-day Maya individuals and 104 ancient Maya individuals. A demographic study based on the analysis of fertility and endogamy was carried out in two modern Maya populations to identify cultural factors that influence the mitochondrial haplogroup genetic diversity. Most present-day and ancient Maya populations show a distribution pattern of mitochondrial haplogroup frequencies A, C, B and D in decreasing order, with haplogroup D absent in several populations. Considering only modern Maya populations with at least 50 individuals analyzed, the present-day Tzotzil and Lacandon populations from Chiapas show the higher and lower genetic diversities, 0.706 and 0.025 respectively. Our results show small genetic differences between the Maya populations with exception of the present-day Tojolabal and Lacandon populations from Chiapas. The present-day Lacandon population from Chiapas is different to other Maya populations in showing almost only haplogroup A. This result suggests a long history of isolation and endogamy as well as a possible founder effect inside the Lacandonian rain-forest. The contemporary Tojolabal population is the only one with an unusual mitochondrial haplogroup pattern exhibiting a frequency of haplogroup B higher than A and the absence of haplogroup C. With a small sample size, the pre-Columbian Copan Maya show a high content of haplogroup C and a low frequency of haplogroup D. The genetic homogeneity of the Maya populations is indicative of a common origin and nearly continuous gene flow in the long-term within a general isolation of the whole group, conversely to the Nahua populations that had different origins. Our demographic study showed high fertility rates and high levels of endogamy in the present-day Maya populations from Quintana Roo here analyzed that are consistent with their general low genetic diversity. We propose that the genetic similarity among ancient and present-day Maya populations persists due to a strong sense of social cohesion and identity that impacts their marriage practices maintaining this cultural group isolated. These factors have constrained gene flow inside the Maya region and impeded the differentiation among the Maya. Discernment of genetic differentiation within the peninsula is constrained by the lack of sampling documentation in the literature

Recommendations for treatment with recombinant human growth hormone in pediatric patients in Colombia

En Colombia, actualmente no existen parámetros claros para el diagnóstico de pacientes con talla baja, ni sobre el tratamiento de esta población con hormona de crecimiento recombinante humana (somatropina), lo cual se ve favorecido por la diversidad de programas de formación de profesionales en endocrinología pediátrica. En respuesta a esta problemática se realizó el primer acuerdo colombiano de expertos en talla baja liderado por la Asociación Colegio Colombiana de Endocrinología Pediátrica (ACCEP); este trabajo contó con la participación y el aval de expertos clínicos de importantes instituciones de salud públicas y privadas del país, además de expertos metodológicos del instituto Keralty, quienes garantizaron la estandarización del uso de la somatropina. Después de realizar una minuciosa revisión de la literatura, se propone la unificación de definiciones, un algoritmo diagnóstico, los parámetros de referencia de las pruebas bioquímicas y dinámicas, una descripción de las consideraciones de uso de la somatropina para el tratamiento de las patologías con aprobación por la entidad regulatoria de medicamentos y alimentos en Colombia y, por último, un formato de consentimiento informado y de ficha técnica del medicamento.In Colombia there are no guidelines for diagnosis and management of patients with short stature and for the use of recombinanthuman growth hormone, mainly caused by the diversity of training centers in pediatric endocrinology. In response to this situation,the Asociación Colegio Colombiana de Endocrinología Pediátrica leds the first colombian short stature expert committee in order tostandardize the use of human recombinant growth hormone. This work had the participation and endorsement of a consortium ofclinical experts representing the Sociedad Colombiana de Pediatría, Secretaría Distrital de Salud de Bogotá- Subred Integrada deServicios de Salud Suroccidente, Fundación Universitaria Sanitas, Universidad de los Andes and some public and private healthinstitutions in the country, in addition to the participation of methodological experts from the Instituto Global de Excelencia ClínicaKeralty. By reviewing the literature and with the best available evidence, we proposed to unify definitions, a diagnostic algorithm,biochemical and dynamic tests with their reference parameters, a description of the considerations about growth hormone use amongthe indications approved by regulatory agency for medications and food in Colombia and finally a proposal for an informed consentand a medication fact sheet available for parents and patients.https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7856-7213https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2241-7854Revista Nacional - Indexad

Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Mazahua and Otomi Indigenous Populations from Estado de México Suggests a Distant Common Ancestry

The indigenous Mazahua and Otomi have inhabited the same localities in Estado de México since pre-Columbian times. Their languages, Mazahua and Otomi, belong to the Oto-Manguean linguistic family, and although they share cultural traditions and a regional history that suggest close genetic relationships and common ancestry, the historical records concerning their origin are confusing. To understand the biological relationships between Mazahua and Otomi, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genetic variation. We identified the mtDNA haplogroups by restriction fragment length polymorphism typing and sequenced hypervariable region 1 of the mtDNA control region in 141 Mazahua and 100 Otomi. These results showed that Otomi exhibit a higher frequency of haplogroup A than B, whereas Mazahua exhibit the opposite pattern. In the Otomi EM population the most frequent subhaplogroups are, in order of frequency, A2, B2, and C1, whereas in the Mazahua 1 population they are B2, D1, and A2. The most frequent haplotypes (Ht) of haplogroups A and B are Ht2 (A) and Ht58 (B2g1) in Mazahua 1 and Ht8 (A2), Ht22 (A2ao1), and Ht53 (B2c2b) in Otomi EM. The genetic differences between the Mazahua 1 and Otomi EM suggest a distant shared ancestry and a moderate degree of maternal admixture that has not obscured the diffference of their mtDNA patterns. These unexpected results suggest the Mazahua and Otomi probably descend from the same group but separated very early and admixed with other Mesoamerican populations before their arrival in Central Mexico. The historical evidence of conflicting relations between the Mazahua and Otomi and the almost nonexistence of marriage between them could be responsible for maintaining only a moderate degree of maternal admixture

Nuclear genetic diversity of head lice sheds light on human dispersal around the world.

The human louse, Pediculus humanus, is an obligate blood-sucking ectoparasite that has coevolved with humans for millennia. Given the intimate relationship between this parasite and the human host, the study of human lice has the potential to shed light on aspects of human evolution that are difficult to interpret using other biological evidence. In this study, we analyzed the genetic variation in 274 human lice from 25 geographic sites around the world by using nuclear microsatellite loci and female-inherited mitochondrial DNA sequences. Nuclear genetic diversity analysis revealed the presence of two distinct genetic clusters I and II, which are subdivided into subclusters: Ia-Ib and IIa-IIb, respectively. Among these samples, we observed the presence of the two most common louse mitochondrial haplogroups: A and B that were found in both nuclear Clusters I and II. Evidence of nuclear admixture was uncommon (12%) and was predominate in the New World potentially mirroring the history of colonization in the Americas. These findings were supported by novel DIYABC simulations that were built using both host and parasite data to define parameters and models suggesting that admixture between cI and cII was very recent. This pattern could also be the result of a reproductive barrier between these two nuclear genetic clusters. In addition to providing new evolutionary knowledge about this human parasite, our study could guide the development of new analyses in other host-parasite systems

Identificación de la presencia de ADN antiguo en restos óseos de la cultura capacha de Colima. 10-11 Tercera época Año 2 (2015) septiembre-diciembre. Diario de Campo. La antropología física ayer y hoy

Se analiza una colección osteológica recuperada del sitio arqueológico Las Fuentes en Colima, México, cuyos materiales corresponden a la fase cultural capacha del Formativo temprano (1500 a.C.). Las vasijas asa de estribo y las acinturadas, asociadas con los entierros, guardan una similitud con las elaboradas por las culturas de América del Sur, lo cual plantea probables contactos culturales y comerciales. Mediante la recuperación de los esqueletos y análisis del adnmitocondrial (adnmt) se pretende establecer hipótesis sobre estas relaciones. El artículo expone los avances y primeros resultados obtenidos.Alcántara Salinas, Andrés Saúl, “Un panteón preclásico en Colima”, tesis de licenciatura en arqueología, México, ENAH, 2005, pp. 25-58.Alcántara Salinas, Andrés Saúl, Laura Almendros y Ángeles Olay, “La tradición capacha. Evaluación y perspectivas desde el valle de Colima”, en El sistema fluvial Lerma-Santiago durante el Formativo y el Clásico temprano, México, INAH, 2010, pp. 19-41.Anderson, S. A. et al., “Sequence and Organization of the Human Mitochondrial Genome”, en Nature, vol. 290, núm. 5806, 1981, pp. 457-465.Andrews, R. M. et al., “Reanalysis and Revision of the Cambridge Reference Sequence for Human Mitochondrial DNA”, en Nature Genetics, vol. 23, núm. 2, 1999, p. 147.Boom, R. et al., “Rapid and Simple Method for Purification of Nucleic Acids”, en Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 28, núm. 3, 1990, pp. 495-503.Bravo López, M. J., “Análisis del adnmitocondrial en mayas con-temporáneos y antiguos de Xcaret, Quintana Roo”, tesis de maestría en ciencias biológicas, México, UNAM, en proceso.Brown, M. D. et al., “mtDNA Haplogroup x: An Ancient Link Bet-ween Europe/Western Asia and North America?”, en Ame-rican Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 63, núm. 6, 1998, pp. 1852-1861.Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. y A. W. Edwards, “Phylogenetic Analysis. Models and Estimation Procedures”, en American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 19, núm. 3, 1997, pp. 233-257.Cooper, A. y H. N. Poinar, “Ancient DNA: Do it Right or Not at All”, en Science, núm. 289, 2000, p. 1139.Cruz Laina, I. de la et al., “Sex Identification of Children Sacrificed to the Ancient Aztec Rain Gods in Tlatelolco”, en Current Anthropology, vol. 49, núm. 3, 2008, pp. 519-526._____, “Análisis de los linajes del adnmitocondrial en la población maya del periodo colonial (siglos XVI-XVII) de Xca-ret, Quintana Roo”, en III Simposio Internacional El Hombre Temprano en América, México, IIA-UNAM/INAH/Museo del Desierto, 2010, pp. 103-109.Eshleman, J. A., R. S. Malhi y D. G. Smith, “Mitochondrial dnaStudies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas”, en Evolutionary Anthropology, núm. 12, 2003, pp. 7-18.Gilbert, M. T. P. et al., “Assessing Ancient dnaStudies”, en Trends in Ecology - Evolution, núm. 20, 2005a, pp. 541–544._____, “Biochemical and Physical Correlates of dnaContamina-tion in Archaeological Human Bones and Teeth Excavated at Matera, Italy”, en Journal of Archaeological Science, núm. 32, 2005b, pp. 785-793.González-Oliver, A. et al., “Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo”, en American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 116, núm. 3, 2001, pp. 230-235.Handt, O. et al., “Ancient DNA: Methodological Challenges”, en Experientia, núm. 50, 1994, pp. 524-529.Hernández Díaz, Verónica, “Muerte y vida en la cultura de tumbas de tiro”, en Miradas renovadas al Occidente indígena de México, México, UNAM/INAH/CEMCA, 2013, pp. 79-91.Höss, M. et al., “DNA Damage and DNA Sequence Retrieval from Ancient Tissues”, en Nucleic Acids Research, núm. 24, 1996, pp. 1304-1307.Kelly, Isabel, “Stirrup Pots from Colima, Some Implications”, en The Archaeology of West México, Ajijic, Sociedad de Estudios Avanzados del Occidente de México, 1974, pp. 2006-2011._____, “Archaeological Research in Colima, México”, en National Geographic Society Research Reports 1968. Projects, Washington, D.C., 1976, pp. 189-197._____, “Archaeological Research in Colima, México”, en National Geographic Society Research Reports 1968. Projects, Washington, D.C., 1978, pp. 307-311._____, Ceramic Sequence in Colima: Capacha, an Early Phase, Tucson, The University of Arizona Press (Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, 37), 1980, pp. 3-17.Krings, M. et al., “Neandertal DNA Sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans”, en Cell, núm. 90, 1997, pp. 19-30.Lell, J. T. et al., “Y Chromosome Polymorphisms in Native American and Siberian Populations: Identification of Native American Y Chromosome Haplotypes”, en Human Genetics, vol. 100, núms. 5-6, 1997, pp. 536-543.Lorenz, J. G. y D. G. Smith, “Distribution of Four Founding mtd-na Haplogroups among Native North Americans”, en American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 101, núm. 3, 1996, pp. 307-323.Meighan, Clement, Archaeology of the Morett Site, Austin/Ber-keley/Los Ángeles, University of California Press, 1972.Olay Barrientos, María de los Ángeles, “El Occidente mesoamericano. Una historia en construcción”, en Introducción a la arqueología del Occidente de México, México, Universidad de Colima/INAH, 2004a, pp. 43-78._____, “Arqueología de Colima”, en Introducción a la arqueología del Occidente de México, México, Universidad de Colima/INAH, 2004b, pp. 271-300.Oliveros Morales, José Arturo, “El espacio de la muerte: Hacedores de tumbas en el mundo prehispánico”, tesis de doctorado en antropología, México, ENAH, 2000.Pääbo, S., J. Gilfford y A. C. Wilson, “Mitochondrial DNA Sequences from a 7000 Year Old Brain”, en Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 16, núm. 20, 1988, pp. 9775–9788.Pääbo, S., R. G. Higuchi y A. C. Wilson, “Ancient DNA and the Polymerase Chain Reaction”, en Journal Biology Chemistry, núm. 264, 1989, pp. 9709-9712.Pérez Martínez, M., “Relaciones genéticas determinadas con adnmitocondrial en poblaciones mesoamericanas con-temporáneas mazahua, otomí, lacandona, y maya antigua”, tesis de licenciatura, México, UNAM, 2013, p. 101.Pineda Vázquez, D., “Estudio del ADN mitocondrial en poblaciones indígenas contemporáneas: mixe, mixteca y maya del sureste de México”, tesis de maestría en ciencias biológicas, México, UNAM, en prensa.Sampietro, M. L. et al., “Tracking Down Human Contamination in Ancient Human Teeth”, en Molecular Biology Evolution, núm. 29, 2006, pp. 1801-1807.Stoneking, M., “The Human Genome Project and Molecular Anthropology”, en Genome Research, vol. 7, núm. 2, 1997, pp. 87-91._____, “Hypervariable Sites in the mtDNA Control Region are Mutational Hotspots”, en American Journal of Human Ge-netics, vol. 67, núm. 4, 2000, pp. 1029-1032.Stoneking, M. y H. Soodyall, “Human Evolution and the Mito-chondrial Genome”, en Current Opinion in Genetics - Development, vol. 6, núm. 6, 1996, pp. 731-736.Tamm, E. et al., “Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders”, en PLoS ONE, vol. 2, núm. 9, 2007, p. e829+.Torroni, A. et al., “Native American Mitochondrial dnaAnaly-sis Indicates that the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations”, en Gene-tics, vol. 130, núm. 1, 1992, pp. 153-162.Vigilant, L. et al., “Mitochondrial dnaSequences in Single Hairs from a Southern African Population”, en Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 86, núm. 23, 1989, pp. 9350-9354.Willerslev, E. y A. Cooper, “Review Paper. Ancient dna”, en Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Biological Scien-ces, vol. 272, núm. 1558, 2005, pp. 3-16

Genetic Relationships between Mesoamerican Ancient Populations and with American Greater Southwest and Caribbean Populations Close to Mesoamerican Borders

Mesoamerica is a cultural and geographic region with a northern boundary adjacent to the American Greater Southwest, meanwhile its southeastern boundary includes the Maya area, which is adjacent to the Caribbean. These regions are of interest to analyze genetic structure, ancestry and gene flow between the ancient populations. We identified the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups and haplotypes in 19 colonial and 10 pre-Columbian Maya from Xcaret and 6 Paquimé individuals. We analyzed our data together with 603 ancient individuals, 95 colonial and 502 pre-Columbian. The results show clear genetic differences between Mesoamerica, American Greater Southwest and Caribbean regions. High frequency of haplogroup A in Paquimé and Mine Canyon and the distribution of their haplotypes in the networks suggest that these populations are probably genetically related with both, Mesoamerica and the American Greater Southwest. The genetic structure of the Maya is due to common ancestry and it was maintained by geographic isolation and gene flow mostly between Mayan populations. The Spanish conquest did not change this structure in the Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo. Although populations from Central Mexico are not genetically homogenous, they are clearly different to Maya. Teotihuacan and Cholula were contemporary cities that allied to control the region, however they show genetic differences that could be related with a distant common ancestry; they probably descended from the same group but separated very early, before their arrival to Central Mexico

Sex identification of infants sacrificed to the ancient Aztec raingods in Tlatelolco, Mexico

Recent excavations of Temple R, dedicated to the Aztec god of wind and rain, Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl, at the archaeological site of Tlatelolco, Mexico City, recovered the sacrificial remains of 37 subadults and 6 adults. It is believed that this ceremonial complex was the site of an extraordinary ceremony carried out during the great drought and famine of AD 1454–57, a date consistent with the founding of this temple. The ages of 31 subadults and 1 adult were estimated by standard morphometrics analysis of the skeletal remains. Most of the subadults (66%) were children up to 3 years old. Through the extraction of ancient DNA from these remains, it was possible to use molecular techniques to determine the sex of the skeletal remains where in many cases (subadults and fragmentary remains) morphometrics analyses failed. Most, if not all, of these sacrificial victims were males. This remarkable gender bias is consistent with the notion that the victims chosen for sacrifice were a living impersonation of the god to whom they were offered

Antropología molecular y análisis del ADN mitocondrial en poblaciones nahuas del Altiplano de México. 6 Cuarta época, año 2 (2018) septiembre-diciembre. Diario de Campo. Nombrar y contar. Visibilidad estadística de las poblaciones afromexicanas

Estudio que identifica las frecuencias de los haplogrupos del ADN mitocondrial en poblaciones nahuas de los estados de Hidalgo, Puebla y San Luis Potosí. Los resultados obtenidos se compararon con los obtenidos de otras poblaciones del mismo grupo. En las poblaciones nahuas el haplogrupo A presenta la mayor frecuencia en un rango de 46 a 74%; el menos frecuente es el haplogrupo D, que muestra frecuencias bajas de 2 a 17%. Las poblaciones nahuas actuales y antiguas no muestran un patrón claro de distribución de las frecuencias de los cuatro haplogrupos mitocondriales, contrariamente a lo observado para otras poblaciones de origen mesoamericano como las mayas (A, C, B y D, con base en su frecuencia decreciente). En términos generales, los resultados muestran diferencias genéticas significativas entre las poblaciones, especialmente al comparar a los nahuas de Veracruz entre sí y con otras poblaciones de ese mismo grupo, lo que podría deberse a la historia regional de los grupos y su origen. Además, las poblaciones nahuas modernas de la misma región geográfica no siempre muestran relaciones genéticas cercanas; por ejemplo, las dos poblaciones nahuas de la Ciudad de México o las dos poblaciones de Puebla y las de Hidalgo. Por otra parte, cuatro poblaciones nahuas modernas de distintas regiones geográficas muestran una cercanía genética que podría deberse a la presencia de un flujo génico continuo entre ellas. Otras tres poblaciones, dos antiguas, como los aztecas de Tlatelolco y nahuas de Tlaxcala, así como los nahuas modernos de la Sierra Norte de Puebla estudiados aquí, muestran similitudes genéticas que podrían deberse a un origen común.Álvarez-Sandoval, Brenda Arizai et al. (2015). “Genetic Evidence Supports the Multiethnic Character of Teopancazco, a Neighborhood Center of Teotihuacan, Mexico (AD 200-600)”. PLOS ONE, 10(7).Avilés Chávez, Víctor Hugo. Estudio del dna mitocondrial en indígenas nahuas que habitan los estados de Puebla e Hidalgo. Tesis de licenciatura en biología, Facultad de Ciencias-UNAM, México. En prensa.Brown, Michael D. et al. (1998). “mtDNA haplogroup X: an ancient link between Europe/Western Asia and North America?”. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 63(6), pp. 1852-1861. Recuperado de: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707616292Cabrera, Antonio J. (2002). La Huasteca potosina: ligeros apuntes sobre este país. México: El Colegio de San Luis/CIESAS.Campbell, Lyle (1997). “Languages of North America”. En American Indian Languages (pp.107-138). Nueva York: Oxford.Cavalli-Sforza, Luca et al. (1994). “Introduction to Concepts, Data, and Methods”. The History and Geography of Human Genes (pp.7-11). Nueva Jersey: Princeton University Press.lavijero, Francisco Javier (2003). Historia antigua de México. México: Porrúa.Cruz, Isabel de la et al. (2008). “Sex identification of children sacrificed to the ancient Aztec rain gods in Tlatelolco”. Current Anthropology, 49 (3), pp. 519-526.Dopazo, Hernán (2009). “Genómica, bioinformática y evolución: una alianza estratégica para la biología del nuevo siglo”. Ciencia hoy, 19 (113), pp. 88-93. Recuperado de: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4316235Eshleman, Jason A. et al. (2003). “Mitochondrial dna studies of Native Americans: conceptions and misconceptions of the population prehistory of the Americas”. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 12 (1), p. 18.Excoffier, Laurent et al. (2005). “Arlequin (version 3.0): An integrated software package for population genetics data analysis”. Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online, 1(4), 47-50. Recuperado de: http://www.cmpg.unibe.ch/software/arlequin3513/man/Arlequin35.pdfFagan, Brian Murray (1984). The Aztecs. Nueva York: W. H. Freeman.García Martínez, Bernardo (1987). Los pueblos de la sierra: el poder y el espacio entre los indios del norte de Puebla hasta 1700. México: El Colegio de México.Gibson, Charles (1964). Aztecs under Spanish rule: a history of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810. Redwood City: Stanford University Press.Goodman, Morris (1964). Man’s place in the phylogeny of the primates as reflected in serum proteins. En Washburn, Sherwood L. (ed.) Classification and human evolution (pp. 204-234). Londres / Nueva York: Routledge Library Editions.González-Martín, Antonio (coord.) (2006). Historia biológica del hombre en América: aproximaciones desde la antropología física. Pachuca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo._____ et al. (2015). “Demographic History of Indigenous Populations in Mesoamerica Based on mtDNA Sequence Data”. PLOS ONE, 10(8).González-Oliver, Angélica et al. (2001). “Founding amerindian mitochondrial dna lineages in ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 11 6(3), pp. 230-235. Recuperado de: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.1118_____ (2013). “Análisis del dna mitocondrial antiguo y contemporáneo: un acercamiento a las relaciones genéticas en las poblaciones indígenas de Mesoamérica”. Cuicuilco, 20 (58), pp. 153-171. Recuperado de: http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S018516592013000300009script=sci_arttexttlng=en_____ (2017). “Mitochondrial dna Analysis of Mazahua and Otomi Indigenous Populations from Estado de México Suggests a Distant Common Ancestry”. Human Biology, 89 (3), pp. 195-216.Gorostiza, Amaya et al. (2012). “Reconstructing the history of Mesoamerican populations through the study of the mitochondrial DNA control region”. PLoS One, 7(9).Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI) (2010). “Conteo de población y vivienda. Tabulados básicos. México”. Recuperado de: http://www.inegi.org.mx/default.aspxKemp, Brian Matthew et al. (2005). “An analysis of ancient Aztec mtdna from Tlatelolco: Pre Columbian relations and the spread of Uto-Aztecan”. En Reed, D. M. (ed.), Biomolecular Archaeology: Genetic Approaches to the Past (pp. 22-42). 19th Visiting Scholar Conference, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University._____ (2010). “Evaluating the farming/language dispersal hypothesis with genetic variation exhibited by populations in the Southwest and Mesoamerica”. pnas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(15), pp. 6759-6764. Recuperado de: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/15/6759.fullLeón-Portilla, Miguel (1961). Los antiguos mexicanos. México: FCE.Liu, Lin et al. (2012). “Comparison of next-generation sequencing systems”. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, pp. 1-11.Malhi, Ripan Singh et al. (2003). “Native American mtdna prehistory in the American Southwest”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 120 (2), pp. 108-124. Recuperado de: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10138Mata-Míguez, Jaime et al. (2012). “The genetic impact of Aztec imperialism: ancient mitochondrial dna evidence from Xaltocan, Mexico”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149 (4), pp. 504-516.Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (1989). The Aztecs. Nueva York: Rizzoli.Mizuno, Fuzuki et al. (2017). “Characterization of complete mitochondrial genomes of indigenous Mayans in Mexico”. Annals of Human Biology, 44 (7), pp. 652-658. Recuperado de: https://doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2017.1358393Noguez, Xavier (2014). “La zona del Altiplano central en el Posclásico: la etapa tolteca”. En Historia antigua de México. vol. III: El horizonte Posclásico y algunos aspectos intelectuales de las culturas mesoamericanas (pp. 199-236). 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