Stabilizing and Improving Livelihoods in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations (FCAS) – the Search for Frameworks and Evidence

Interventions to support livelihoods in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations (FCAS) are seen by many as subsidiary to the primary (relief-based) imperative to save lives. For others, FCAS interventions remain “stuck” for too long in relief mode, and the potential to get back into support for livelihoods is lost. This paper examines how livelihoods models, initially used in development, not relief, contexts, have been adapted to suit FCAS, and asks what evidence we have on how livelihoods have changed under FCAS and why. It also asks how far efforts to support livelihoods in FCAS have been effective. To provide effective livelihoods support is complex, requiring understanding of how people link into distant opportunities outside the FCAS, how they perceive and respond to risk, and how their livelihoods are affected by power relations, by restrictions on the movement of people and goods, and by reduced capacity to enforce the rule of law in relation to e.g. contracts and the ownership of and access to resources

Apparent permeability (P_app) and efflux ratio of antimalarials through Caco-2 cell monolayers.

<p>Apparent permeability (P_app) and efflux ratio of antimalarials through Caco-2 cell monolayers.</p

Bioavailable copper levels can be decreased in vivo by copper chelating agents.

<p>Low, medium and high doses of TM (A and B), penicillamine (C and D) and trientine (E and F) were administered i.p. to healthy mice over 5 days. Mice were sacrificed on days 0, 2 and 5 Plasma ceruloplasmin (Cp) was assayed (A, C and E), and liver Cu levels analyzed (B, D and F). For Cu levels n = 3 mice/group. For Cp assays there were 11 mice for TM at day 0, these mice were divided into groups and given different doses of TM; 1 mouse/TM dose was culled and sampled at day 2 (n = 1/group) for each of the three doses; 3 mice were sampled for each of the 200 µg and 1000µg TM doses (n = 3/group), and 2 mice sampled for the 500µg TM treatment at day 5 (n = 2/group). For penicillamine and trientine there were 4 mice per treatment dose at day 0 (n = 4) and 1 mouse sampled at each time point for each dose (n = 1/group). Where possible, data is shown as mean ± SEM.</p

Reducing bioavailable copper slows tumor growth rate.

<p>AE17-bearing mice were given daily PBS, TM (500 µg/dose/mouse), penicillamine (2000 µg/dose/mouse) and trientine (700 µg/dose/mouse) throughout tumor growth (A). Pooled data is from one experiment (n = 4 or 5 mice/group). In a separate experiment, AE17-bearing mice were given cisplatin, TM or PBS; n = 6 mice/group (B). In another experiment AE17-bearing mice were given i.p. injections (800 µl) of PBS or 800 µg/dose/mouse anti-VEGFr antibody (C) (n = 10 mice/group). Arrow indicates when treatment was commenced. All data are shown as mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05.</p

Copper lowering in vivo promotes CD4⁺ T cell infiltration.

<p>Mice treated with PBS, TM, penicillamine or trientine were sacrificed when tumors reached 100 mm² and immune cell infiltration analyzed by flow cytometry. The SSC/FSC-A plot revealed the lymphocyte population (A). CD3⁺ regions were determined using the CD3-APC-Cy7 single stain (B). Triple staining identified CD3⁺CD4⁺ or CD3⁺CD8⁺ cells; representative contour plot (C). Pooled data from 2 mice/group shown as mean ± SEM (D). * p < 0.05.</p

Pollination service to field beans, from wild and managed pollinators.

<p>Maps show the potential pollination service to field beans, provided by nine wild pollinator species (A) and by managed honey bees (B). Zero indicates areas lacking pollinator service (minimum service is 0.01 from wild pollinators, 0.002 from managed honey bees). Interval classes are manually defined to the same scale. Blue colour in (B) indicates areas where pollination service cannot be estimated due to missing information on honey bees' presence. Map projection: BNG.</p

Pollination service to field beans, from <i>Bombus pascuorum</i>.

<p>The potential pollination service is represented using geometric intervals, with the exclusion of the zero class which was manually defined. Areas evaluated as 0 indicate crop fields outside the foraging distance of <i>B. pascuorum</i> (i.e. no pollination service). Map projection: BNG.</p

Performance of the calibrated SDMs against performance of the null models.

<p>Model performance is measured as the AUC of model testing. Error bars show the SD of the null models (10 sets for each species, each modelled with 10-fold cross-validation). The number of available records is used to plot different species along the <i>x</i>-axis.</p

SDM outputs for <i>Bombus pascuorum</i>.

<p>Outputs from the SDM for <i>B. pascuorum</i>: (A): known occurrences; (B): predicted MaxEnt average probability from the 10-fold cross-validation models, using geometric interval classes from blue to red; (C): summed presence from the 10 binary maps (10 indicates areas where all 10 models predicted presence and 0 areas where all models predicted absence); (D): final predicted probability for <i>B. pascuorum</i> used as input for the pollinator service, derived from assigning the average probability values in (C) only to the areas where all models predicted presence, and 0 to any area predicted “absence” by at least one binary map. Map projection: British National Grid (BNG).</p