Assessment of water sources and quality for livestock and farmers in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia: Implications for health and food safety

Adequate access to good quality drinking water is an important prerequisite for the wellbeing and survival of people. Increasing competition over scarce freshwater resources with continuous quality deterioration is becoming a serious problem in many developing countries like Ethiopia, where the technical, socioeconomic and political conditions are impeding the proper utilization of the required resource. The concern of low quality water is either due to direct health impacts of poor quality drinking water or a reduction in the palatability of water for humans or animal consumption. The use of contaminated water in food production and/or processing can also be a considerable health concern for people. In rural households, water is used for multiple purposes including income generating activities such as livestock farming. Generally, the interactions among livestock, water and rural communities are very complex. Studies addressing the extent of water scarcity and quality problems in Ethiopia in such contexts are still limited. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of water utilization by farmers and their livestock with respect to potential health and food safety impacts was carried out in two districts of Ethiopia. The specific objectives of the present study were to: (1) assess the constraints and challenges in meeting the water requirements of livestock kept by typical rural communities, (2) assess the utilization of water sources by livestock and people, (3) assess the suitability of water sources for human and livestock consumption based on microbiological and chemical quality indicators, (4) examine the microbiological quality of water at household levels and the potential health impacts, and (5) investigate the potential impacts of poor water quality on the microbiological safety of milk and milk products. The study was carried out in Lume and Siraro districts, both located in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Methodologically, the study encompassed different components: (1) a questionnaire survey complemented by focus group discussions with farmers, (2) assessments of the microbiological and chemical quality of water destined for human and/or livestock consumption, (3) microbiological assessments of milk and milk products produced and consumed by the local communities, and (4) a compilation of secondary data focusing on common human health problems in the districts. The questionnaire survey with 320 randomly selected farmers, the focus group discussions (n=16) and the compilation of secondary data were carried out from July to October 2010. Water samples were collected from sources and household containers from December 2010 to January 2011 and July to August 2011, corresponding to dry and wet seasons, respectively. During both sampling periods, a total of 25 water sources (sites where water was utilised or fetched for the purpose of human and/or livestock consumption) were assessed for microbiological and chemical quality parameters. A total of 126 and 109 water samples from household containers were collected in the dry and wet season, respectively. In addition, a total of 53 samples of milk and milk products were collected during the wet season and analyzed for E. coli contamination. Water samples collected from ground and surface water sources were analysed for total dissolved solids, pH, manganese, chromium, fluoride, E. coli and total coliforms. The assessed parameters were selected based on their importance to health or aesthetic aspects of water for human and/or livestock uses. The water samples from household containers were only analyzed for microbiological parameters. A summary of disease reports (July 2009-June 2010) was obtained from the Health Offices of the respective districts to assess the occurrence and impact of water-related human diseases. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the questionnaire survey data. Qualitative data collected in farmers’ group discussions were analyzed by organising the raised issues into logical categories. Mean ranks were calculated to compare the various constraints for livestock production mentioned by farmers. Non-parametric statistical tests were used to compare E. coli counts of water or milk between seasons and districts. The suitability of water sources for livestock and human consumption was evaluated by comparing the assessed quality parameters with recommended values. The study results showed that water sources intended for domestic and livestock uses were either ground water (hand-dug wells, boreholes) or surface water (river, dugout, surface runoff from roadsides). Challenges in the provision of water for livestock and/or people were associated with physical inaccessibility and high seasonal variation in the availability of water sources. Poor quality water for livestock drinking was rather a concern for communities in the proximity of urban settlements or industrial establishments. The mismanagement of harvested rainwater due to indiscriminate access of livestock to the sources was also found to pose high health risks on both livestock and people. Taking E. coli as an indicator of faecal pollution, the assessment of water samples showed that most of the surface water sources were contaminated with faecal materials and did not meet the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. On the other hand, groundwater sources were microbiologically safe, but chemically contaminated with elements such as fluoride and manganese. In total, 76% of the water sources (n=25 points) assessed in this study failed to comply with WHO guidelines for human drinking water in both, the dry and the wet season for at least one parameter of health or aesthetic concern. Regarding pH, fluoride, manganese and chromium, 32% and 20% of the water sources were found unfit for livestock consumption in the dry and wet season, respectively. Another potential water-related health risk identified in this study was the considerable re-contamination of water after collection from sources. This can severely compromise the expected health benefits from the installation of improved water sources. For the overall assessed water samples from household containers, it was found that E. coli contamination was higher during the rainy season compared to the dry season. The microbiological assessment of milk produced and consumed in the study area showed a considerable contamination with E. coli. Although the correlation between the E. coli counts of milk and water was weak (Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient r=0.1), the recorded poor quality water still might have contributed to the low microbiological quality and safety of dairy products produced and consumed in the area. According to the secondary data collected from health offices, water-related human health problems potentially associated with the scarcity, poor quality and mismanagement of water sources were malaria, diarrhoea and gastro-intestinal parasites. Water-related livestock health problems were also reported by the farmers to be mainly associated with drinking water from stagnant dugouts and the industrially polluted Mojo River. In conclusion, the rural communities in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia lack reliable access to safe water sources, with potential adverse health impacts. A possible priority of action that emanates from this study is a minimization of industrially associated water quality deterioration through the enforcement of existing environmental protection rules and regulations. Concurrently, awareness creation of the owners of the industries on the proper waste disposal mechanisms and environmental accountability should be targeted as one of the key aspects to alleviate the industry-related water pollution. On the other hand, in order to minimize the health risk associated with the mismanagement of rainwater harvesting systems, farmers should be technically supported by the local government in the proper design and management of the systems. Health education remains a necessary and crucial intervention to reduce the re-contamination of water. In this respect particularly women should be addressed, since they are customarily responsible for the collection and handling of water for domestic consumption

Microbiological safety of milk and processing and consumption behaviour in pastoral areas in southern Ethiopia

The objective of the present study was to assess the behaviour of people in milk production and consumption using qualitative methods. Further, the study involved the microbiological quality and safety assessment of milk and traditional dairy products along milk value chains. The investigation involved largely women given that women are customarily involved in milk handling and processing. Individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations were used to (1) document milk production and processing practices, (2) assess perception on quality and safety of milk including perceived criteria for good milk, (3) assess awareness on milkborne diseases, and (4) evaluate milk boiling practices. The interviews and discussions were documented using field note and audio recording which later were transcribed and analysed by identifying the themes. For the microbiological assessment, a total of 203 samples: 145 pooled milk, 40 directly from udder and 18 ititu (fermented whole milk curd with whey removed) were analysed for E. coli count and selected pathogens (E. coli O157:H7, Listeria spp. and Staphylococcus aureus). The result showed that cow milk is processed into different products such as ititu, butter milk, butter and ghee. Goat milk is either directly consumed by children during herding or added to tea instead of further processing. Camel milk production is practiced only in some villages and appreciated for its larger volume especially during dry season and widely consumed and marketed fresh. Most of the respondents stated that humans cannot get disease from milk consumption and boiling of fresh milk is not a common practice in the area because people believe that “vitamin is destroyed when boiled” and “boiled milk is considered as dead”. On the other hand, milk is usually consumed with tea by adding the milk into hot boiled and filtered tea. Women mentioned smoking as a way to ensure quality, shelf life and safety of milk and traditionally produced dairy products. However, observation of milk handling and processing practice revealed apparent unhygienic conditions. E. coli was detected in 51.7% of the analysed samples with a mean count of 5x105 CFU/ml. The study also revealed that 2.5%, 10.8% and 1.5% of the samples harbour E. coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria spp., respectively. Thus the findings of this study highlight the need to promote hygienic practises and measuring the effect of these. In addition there is a need to closely engage with local communities to improve their understanding on milk safety risks and thus to facilitate a change in practices

The need for awareness raising on the causes and treatment of mastitis in livestock among pastoralists in southern Ethiopia

Ethiopia has high prevalence of clinical and subclinical mastitis in different livestock species and production systems and these contribute substantially to poor productivity in affected herds. Thus far, studies have focused on identification of microbial pathogens and associated risk factors for mastitis. However, relatively little is known about the knowledge and beliefs of livestock keepers regarding prevailing livestock health problems in general and mastitis in particular. An accurate understanding of these beliefs would be central to the design of effective disease control programs that give due consideration to the livestock keepers. As a first step, we set out to conduct a qualitative study aimed at exploring the knowledge and belief surrounding the causes, clinical signs and treatments for mastitis in (agro-) pastoral communities in southern Ethiopia. In four village administrations of Yabello district of Borana zone, different participatory tools were used to collect qualitative data. Individual interviews were held with 40 women using a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire guide. Four focus group discussions with women were also carried out (one in each village) and informal discussion were held with different community members. The data was analysed qualitative by repeated reading to identify different themes. Mastitis is locally known as ‘dhukkuba muchaa”, which translates to ‘disease of teats’. Those interviewed classified mastitis into three types: (1) tick infestation (dirandisa), (2) swelling of udder often with pus discharge (nyaqarsa) and (3) acute mastitis caused by ‘evil eye’ (buda) associated with bloody milk. Tick infestation was perceived to directly cause mechanical damage to udder tissue or to result in swelling leading to nyaqarsa. Our analysis also revealed a strong perception that acute mastitis is caused by 'evil eye'; generally affected cows are with large udders mostly during late pregnancy and early lactation. The pastoralists often treat mastitis by combining both modern and traditional methods. Hand removal and acarcide application were the preferred methods for limiting tick infestation while swelling and ‘evil eye’ cases were treated with antibiotics (e.g. oxytetracycline). The study also revealed that specific herbs, only known by the herbalists, were used for traditional treatment of mastitis and although this information could not be divulged at the time, it should form the subject of further investigation. Traditional treatment for evil eye was often administered through nostrils, raising questions about its effectiveness. It is interesting that the pastoralists associated mastitis to tick infestation which is compatible with existing scientific evidence. However, the misperception of causes for acute mastitis as ‘evil eye’ can be problematic as far as the application of appropriate treatment and management of the disease is concerned and highlights the need for capacity building on causes of mastitis and how they can be treated

Approaches for disease prioritization and decision-making in animal health, 2000–2021: a structured scoping review

This scoping review identifies and describes the methods used to prioritize diseases for resource allocation across disease control, surveillance, and research and the methods used generally in decision-making on animal health policy. Three electronic databases (Medline/PubMed, Embase, and CAB Abstracts) were searched for articles from 2000 to 2021. Searches identified 6, 395 articles after de-duplication, with an additional 64 articles added manually. A total of 6, 460 articles were imported to online document review management software (sysrev.com) for screening. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 532 articles passed the first screening, and after a second round of screening, 336 articles were recommended for full review. A total of 40 articles were removed after data extraction. Another 11 articles were added, having been obtained from cross-citations of already identified articles, providing a total of 307 articles to be considered in the scoping review. The results show that the main methods used for disease prioritization were based on economic analysis, multi-criteria evaluation, risk assessment, simple ranking, spatial risk mapping, and simulation modeling. Disease prioritization was performed to aid in decision-making related to various categories: (1) disease control, prevention, or eradication strategies, (2) general organizational strategy, (3) identification of high-risk areas or populations, (4) assessment of risk of disease introduction or occurrence, (5) disease surveillance, and (6) research priority setting. Of the articles included in data extraction, 50.5% had a national focus, 12.3% were local, 11.9% were regional, 6.5% were sub-national, and 3.9% were global. In 15.2% of the articles, the geographic focus was not specified. The scoping review revealed the lack of comprehensive, integrated, and mutually compatible approaches to disease prioritization and decision support tools for animal health. We recommend that future studies should focus on creating comprehensive and harmonized frameworks describing methods for disease prioritization and decision-making tools in animal health