Neuroimaging and serum biomarkers of neurodegeneration and neuroplasticity in Parkinson’s disease patients treated by intermittent theta-burst stimulation over the bilateral primary motor area: a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled, crossover trial study

Background and objectivesIntermittent theta-burst stimulation (iTBS) is a patterned form of excitatory transcranial magnetic stimulation that has yielded encouraging results as an adjunctive therapeutic option to alleviate the emergence of clinical deficits in Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients. Although it has been demonstrated that iTBS influences dopamine-dependent corticostriatal plasticity, little research has examined the neurobiological mechanisms underlying iTBS-induced clinical enhancement. Here, our primary goal is to verify whether iTBS bilaterally delivered over the primary motor cortex (M1) is effective as an add-on treatment at reducing scores for both motor functional impairment and nonmotor symptoms in PD. We hypothesize that these clinical improvements following bilateral M1-iTBS could be driven by endogenous dopamine release, which may rebalance cortical excitability and restore compensatory striatal volume changes, resulting in increased striato-cortico-cerebellar functional connectivity and positively impacting neuroglia and neuroplasticity.MethodsA total of 24 PD patients will be assessed in a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled crossover study involving the application of iTBS over the bilateral M1 (M1 iTBS). Patients on medication will be randomly assigned to receive real iTBS or control (sham) stimulation and will undergo 5 consecutive sessions (5 days) of iTBS over the bilateral M1 separated by a 3-month washout period. Motor evaluation will be performed at different follow-up visits along with a comprehensive neurocognitive assessment; evaluation of M1 excitability; combined structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), resting-state electroencephalography and functional MRI; and serum biomarker quantification of neuroaxonal damage, astrocytic reactivity, and neural plasticity prior to and after iTBS.DiscussionThe findings of this study will help to clarify the efficiency of M1 iTBS for the treatment of PD and further provide specific neurobiological insights into improvements in motor and nonmotor symptoms in these patients. This novel project aims to yield more detailed structural and functional brain evaluations than previous studies while using a noninvasive approach, with the potential to identify prognostic neuroprotective biomarkers and elucidate the structural and functional mechanisms of M1 iTBS-induced plasticity in the cortico-basal ganglia circuitry. Our approach may significantly optimize neuromodulation paradigms to ensure state-of-the-art and scalable rehabilitative treatment to alleviate motor and nonmotor symptoms of PD

A new antigen retrieval technique for human brain tissue.

Immunohistochemical staining of tissues is a powerful tool used to delineate the presence or absence of an antigen. During the last 30 years, antigen visualization in human brain tissue has been significantly limited by the masking effect of fixatives. In the present study, we have used a new method for antigen retrieval in formalin-fixed human brain tissue and examined the effectiveness of this protocol to reveal masked antigens in tissues with both short and long formalin fixation times. This new method, which is based on the use of citraconic acid, has not been previously utilized in brain tissue although it has been employed in various other tissues such as tonsil, ovary, skin, lymph node, stomach, breast, colon, lung and thymus. Thus, we reported here a novel method to carry out immunohistochemical studies in free-floating human brain sections. Since fixation of brain tissue specimens in formaldehyde is a commonly method used in brain banks, this new antigen retrieval method could facilitate immunohistochemical studies of brains with prolonged formalin fixation times

Subthalamic Beta Activity in Parkinson's Disease May Be Linked to Dorsal Striatum Gray Matter Volume and Prefrontal Cortical Thickness: A Pilot Study.

Excessive oscillations at beta frequencies (13-35 Hz) in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) represent a pathophysiological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD), which correlates well with parkinsonian symptoms and is reduced in response to standard disease treatments. However, the association of disease-specific regional gray matter (GM) atrophy or cortical thickness (CT) with the presence of STN beta oscillatory activity has been poorly investigated but is of relevance given the potential of these variables for extracting information about PD pathophysiology. This exploratory study investigated the involvement of regional GM volume and CT in the basal ganglia-cortical network and its potential association with the presence of STN beta oscillatory activity in PD. We acquired preoperative GM densities on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans and we carried out regional estimation of GM volume and CT. LFP activities from the STN were recorded post-operatively in 7 cognitively preserved PD patients off dopaminergic medication undergoing deep-brain stimulation surgery. Oscillatory beta power was determined by power spectral density of 4-min resting state STN LFP activity. Spearman partial correlations and regression analysis were used to screen the presence of STN beta power for their relationship with GM volume and CT measurements. After controlling for the effects of age, educational level, and disease duration, and after correcting for multiple testing, enhanced STN beta power showed significant and negative correlations between, first, volume of the right putamen and left caudate nucleus, and second, smaller CT in frontal regions involving the left rostral middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and left medial orbitofrontal gyrus. A lower volume in the right putamen and a lower CT in the left MFG demonstrated the strongest associations with increased STN beta power. These tentative results seem to suggest that STN LFP beta frequencies may be mainly linked to different but ongoing parallel neurodegenerative processes, on the one hand, to GM volume reduction in dorsal striatum, and on the other hand, to CT reduction of prefrontal-"associative" regions. These findings could further delineate the brain structural interactions underpinning the exaggerated STN beta activity commonly observed in PD patients

A, Neuropeptide immunohistochemistry in the human thalamus.

<p>Bright field photomicrographs in high magnification of SP fibers without citraconic anhydride solution in the anteroventral thalamic nucleus. B, bright field photomicrographs in high magnification of SP fibers with citraconic anhydride solution in the same nucleus. Note the enhancement in the intensity of SP-ir fibers and in the number of fibers. Scale bar: 25 µm.</p

A, Immunohistochemistry for ENK in the caudate nucleus.

<p>Bright field photomicrographs in high magnification of ENK fibers without citraconic anhydride solution in the caudate nucleus. B, bright field photomicrographs in high magnification of ENK fibers with citraconic anhydride solution in the same nucleus. Note that the latter fibers are better delineated than in the conventional immunostaing method. Scale bar: 50 µm.</p

A–B, Immunohistochemistry for TH in the substantia nigra.

<p>High power view (10× and 20× magnification respectively) of TH-ir neurons in the substantia nigra employing the citraconic anhydride solution. Note the enhancement in the intensity and morphology (somas more preserved and processes more delineated) compared to the conventional immunostaining method (C–D). Scale bar: A and C 100 µm; B and D 50 µm.</p

Data of the human specimen used in this study.

<p>Data of the human specimen used in this study.</p

A, Immunohistochemistry for CB in the MD.

<p>High power view of some CB-ir neurons in the human mediodorsal thalamic nucleus without the employ of citraconic anhydride solution. B, high power view of CB-ir neurons in the same nucleus employing the citraconic anhydride solution. Note the enhancement in the intensity of CB-ir somata. Scale bar: 50 µm.</p