A lesson learned in time: Advice shared by experienced sport psychologists

Through experience, sport psychologists will learn countless valuable lessons. Some lessons, however, are likely to stand out vividly to a psychologist because they made a valuable difference to how they practise. The present project focuses on these outstanding lessons. In essence, sport psychologists who had been practising for between 11 and 28 years (mean ± SD = 19 ± 5) were asked to share their most valuable advice about any aspect of sport psychology client work with other sport psychologists. This publication presents participants' full responses

Using solution-focused brief therapy with an amateur football team: A trainee's case study

This case study describes the application of a solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) theoretical framework by a Trainee Sport and Exercise Psychologist working with an amateur football team. The case study describes SFBT and how the practitioner was guided by SFBT principles during each stage of service provision. It is not intended to describe a 'success story' or the neat application of a theoretical framework. Instead, it reflects a trainee's real-life (and somewhat 'messy') application of SFBT principles in a team context. It demonstrates that not everything will go to plan and emphasises the importance of adapting to the context

Time perception, pacing and exercise intensity: maximal exercise distorts the perception of time

Introduction Currently there are no data examining the impact of exercise on the perception of time, which is surprising as optimal competitive performance is dependent on accurate pacing using knowledge of time elapsed. Methods With institutional ethics approval, 12 recreationally active adult participants (f = 7, m = 5) undertook both 30 s Wingate cycles and 20 min (1200 s) rowing ergometer bouts as short and long duration self-paced exercise trials, in each of three conditions on separate occasions: 1) light exertion: RPE 11, 2) heavy exertion: RPE 15, 3) maximal exertion: RPE 20. Participants were unaware of exercise duration and were required to verbally indicate when they perceived (subjective time) 1) 25%, 2) 50%, 3) 75% and 4) 100% of each bout's measured (chronological) time had elapsed. Results In response to the Wingate task, there was no difference between durations of subjective time at the 25%, nor at the 50% interval. However, at the 75% and 100% intervals, the estimate for the RPE 20 condition was shortest (P < 0.01). In response to rowing, there were no differences at the 25% interval, but there was some evidence that the RPE 20 condition was perceived shorter at 50%. At 75% and 100%, the RPE 20 condition was perceived to be shorter than both RPE 15 (P = 0.04) and RPE 11 (P = 0.008) conditions. Conclusion This study is the first to empirically demonstrate that exercise intensity distorts time perception, particularly during maximal exercise. Consequently external feedback of chronological time may be an important factor for athletes undertaking maximal effort tasks or competitions

Psychologically-Informed Methods of Enhancing Endurance Performance

The main focus of this thesis was to determine psychologically-informed methods of enhancing endurance performance, particularly in endurance sport events. There were three main research aims. First, this thesis aimed to synthesise research conducted to date on the psychological determinants of endurance performance. A systematic literature review was conducted to identify psychological interventions that affect endurance performance in experimental research. Learning psychological skills, verbal encouragement, and head-to-head competition enhanced endurance performance, whereas mental fatigue undermined endurance performance. Second, this thesis aimed to inform the design of performance-enhancement psychological interventions for endurance sports. In the first study addressing this aim, focus group interviews were conducted with recreational endurance athletes of various endurance sports, distances, and competitive levels to identify psychological demands that are commonly experienced by endurance athletes. Seven common psychological demands were identified using a thematic analysis. These demands were commonly encountered away from the competitive environment (time investment and lifestyle sacrifices, commitment to training sessions, concerns about optimising training, and exercise sensations during training), preceding an event (pre-event stressors), and during an event (exercise sensations, optimising pacing, and remaining focused despite adversity). Psychological interventions that help endurance athletes to cope with these psychological demands could potentially enhance performance in endurance events. In the second study that aimed to inform the design of an intervention, a psychophysiology experiment applied research on the facial feedback hypothesis to determine whether frowning modulates perception of effort during endurance performance. Contrary to hypotheses, intentionally frowning throughout a cycling time-to-exhaustion test did not influence perception of effort or time to exhaustion. This finding suggests that novel interventions that are informed by the facial feedback hypothesis and that target the expression of a frown would be unlikely to enhance endurance performance. Finally, this thesis aimed to examine the effect of a psychological skills training intervention on performance in a real-life endurance event. A randomised, controlled experiment was conducted to examine the effect of learning motivational self-talk on performance in a 60-mile, overnight ultramarathon. Although performance times indicated that motivational self-talk possibly produced a performance enhancement that might benefit ultramarathon runners, additional data will be collected at the same ultramarathon in 2016 to draw firmer conclusions. Overall, the findings of this thesis draw attention to psychological factors that influence performance in endurance events and demonstrate that psychologically-informed interventions can enhance endurance performance. People involved in endurance sports, such as athletes and coaches, are therefore encouraged to systematically work on the psychological aspects of training, preparing for a competition, and competing. Suggestions for how to approach this practically are scrutinised throughout the thesis

Effects of clothing perception on psychological factors and tactical intentions in fencing

Research shows body language can affect opponent perception, but presents inconsistencies for clothing. The consequences of clothing perception have received little attention. This study examined if clothing can affect perception in a sporting context and examined the effects of this change. Fencers (N = 63) completed a questionnaire displaying two conditions of a fencing opponent: an international condition and a club condition. Participants’ judgements of the opponent, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, locus of control, and tactical intentions were measured. Results showed participants perceived the international opponent to be of a higher level (p < .001) and ability (97.4%, p < .001), and they judged them more favourably (67.8%, p < .001). Self-efficacy (−16% ±19, p < .01) and outcome expectations (−26.7%, p < .001) decreased while locus of control became more external (p < .001) against the international opponent. Participants intended to be less attacking and less assertive during the first hit and throughout the match against the international opponent (p < .025). These results show that clothing can affect opponent perception within sport, impacting key psychological performance factors and tactical intentions. This study highlights the need for further investigation into person perception in sport, especially the mechanisms causing less attacking and assertive behaviour against perceived high-level opponents

Application of the Facial Feedback Hypothesis to Endurance Performance– Does Frowning Modulate Perception of Effort?

Objectives: People frown during strenuous exercise. Research on the facial feedback hypothesis raises the intriguing possibility that frowning may modulate (i.e., amplify/soften) perception of effort during endurance performance and therefore play a causal role in endurance performance. This study examined whether intentionally frowning throughout a cycling time-to-exhaustion test increased perception of effort and, consequently, reduced time to exhaustion. This study also examined the effects of frowning on affective states experienced during performance and after exhaustion. Design: A randomised, controlled, crossover experimental design was used to compare (within-subjects) the effects of frowning with control conditions. Methods: Ten recreational endurance athletes performed cycling time-to-exhaustion tests in three conditions. In a frowning condition, participants frowned throughout the time-to-exhaustion test. In a matched-workload control condition, participants pressed their thumb against the ergometer handlebar throughout the test. Electromyography biofeedback was used to deliver these interventions. There was also a no-intervention control condition. Perception of effort and exercise-related affect were measured throughout the time-to-exhaustion test, and positive and negative affective states were measured before and after the test. Results: Intentionally frowning did not affect perception of effort, affective states experienced while cycling or after exhaustion, or time to exhaustion. Conclusions: Frowning may not modulate perception of effort or affective responses during endurance exercise to exhaustion. Although additional research using different methods would allow firmer conclusions to be drawn, these findings suggest that interventions that target the expression of a frown would be unlikely to offer an efficacious method of improving endurance performance

How do new runners maintain their running, and what leads to others stopping? A qualitative, longitudinal study

Many people who start running do not maintain their behaviour change. We used qualitative, longitudinal methods to explore and interpret the experiences of new runners and answer the question, “What experiences explain how new runners maintain their running or explain why they stop?” We interviewed 20 new runners (all White British, 14 women, 6 men) about their experiences; we interviewed 10 until they stopped running and 10 until they maintained running for 6–12 months (65 interviews in total). We also conducted nine participant observations at a running club, invited external reflections at a running club, and analysed six sets of participant diaries. Four themes were constructed using a reflexive thematic analysis: (1) Identifying a meaningful “why”; (2) “Life gets in the way” of running; (3) Learning that I can run; and (4) Opportunities are unequal and experiences contrast. The runners’ reasons for running helped us to interpret changes in their experiences through time. Meaningful reasons helped runners to learn that they can run, prioritise running, and prevent life getting in the way. These reasons tended to be reasons to run, as opposed to reasons to be physically active, and they related to their identity, values, special memories, relationships, enjoyment of running, or a personal goal. Nevertheless, social inequalities like gendered experiences, wealth, and health differences meant that opportunities and experiences of running differed, creating more barriers for some runners. When runners faced substantial barriers, having a meaningful reason was helpful but it was sometimes insufficient for maintenance. The analysis illustrates how people’s reasons for exercise influence their experiences through time, the dynamic nature of people’s exercise barriers and facilitators, and the unequal nature of opportunities and experiences

Self-regulation in endurance sports: theory, research, and practice

There is considerable research interest in psychological aspects of endurance performance. Until recently, research typically lacked a theoretical underpinning, and contemporary research is particularly informed by the psychobiological model of endurance performance. In this critical review, we propose that psychological theories relating to self-regulation, particularly self-efficacy theory and the process model of emotion regulation, could shed more light on how endurance performance is determined and lead to additional understanding of how psychological interventions can be used. We argue that people encounter fewer stressors in most experimental studies than are encountered before and during real-life events. In addition, we argue that most research conducted to date has focused on the forethought and performance phases of self-regulation, rather than the self-reflection phase, and research has not considered the cyclical nature of self-regulation. We also argue that if research participants are not endurance athletes, then their motivation may not be self-determined, and self-regulatory learning may not take place. Recommendations are given for future research, and evidence-based guidance is offered on enhancing performance and improving the quality of experience for endurance athletes