Mental Number Line and Simple Addition Task: Experimental Study with Native Russian Speakers

AbstractThis article presents the results of an experiment whose purpose was to investigate the mechanisms of simple addition among native speakers of Russian. The means of storage and retrieval of numerical data in and from the mind and the concrete mechanisms used to perform arithmetic operations are highly cultural specific, and to a great extent dependent on a concrete language, as has been shown in many works previously. The link between number concepts and some cultural features, like reading direction or educational methods, is now being researched intensively. Our experiment tested the hypothesis that the mechanism of simple addition is based on a mental number line, at least for Russian native speakers, so far as Russian is read from left to right and a number line is a widely used method to visualize number relationships in Russian schools. The results of the experiment showed that the proposed hypothesis was not correct, and that arithmetic processing is rather more complicated than linear. Many new questions have arisen because of this and possible directions for future investigations are discussed here

Different languages, same sun, and same grass: Do linguistic stimuli influence attention shifts in Russian?

The aim of the current study is to test the hypothesis of Dudschig et al. (2012) for native Russian speakers. That hypothesis states that linguistic stimuli, which do not convey spatial information in their meaning (e.g., ‘sun’, ‘grass’), produce vertical attention shifts in the direction to the typical location of the word referent in the world. This effect was found by using English and German stimuli for English and German speakers, respectively. But the question is whether or not this effect is culturally specific, or whether there is a common cognitive basis. Three experiments were conducted in Russian, each using a different type of task in order to investigate (1) whether the effect expresses itself in the same way as for English and German, and (2) whether the type of task also influences the effects produced by the described stimuli. The effect of the original hypothesis was not observed, but there is a significant difference between reaction time to up- and down-stimuli: up-words (e.g. sun) were processed faster than down-words (e.g. grass). This indicates that original effect is both universal and has some cultural variability. A possible explanation of this variability is the cultural specificity of the stimuli themselves: the number of meanings, connotations, symbolic meanings, etc. This study may have a practical application in the sphere of foreign language teaching and cross-cultural communication, because it is important to understand that languages may differ not only by their structure, vocabulary, etc., but also by their way of embodiment and by spatial associations of different words; and it is also important to use this new knowledge to develop appropriate teaching methods and communication support

The Force of Numbers: Investigating Manual Signatures of Embodied Number Processing

The study has two objectives: (1) to introduce grip force recording as a new technique for studying embodied numerical processing; and (2) to demonstrate how three competing accounts of numerical magnitude representation can be tested by using this new technique: the Mental Number Line (MNL), A Theory of Magnitude (ATOM) and Embodied Cognition (finger counting-based) account. While 26 healthy adults processed visually presented single digits in a go/no-go n-back paradigm, their passive holding forces for two small sensors were recorded in both hands. Spontaneous and unconscious grip force changes related to number magnitude occurred in the left hand already 100–140 ms after stimulus presentation and continued systematically. Our results support a two-step model of number processing where an initial stage is related to the automatic activation of all stimulus properties whereas a later stage consists of deeper conscious processing of the stimulus. This interpretation generalizes previous work with linguistic stimuli and elaborates the timeline of embodied cognition. We hope that the use of grip force recording will advance the field of numerical cognition research

Ecological Meanings: A Consensus Paper on Individual Differences and Contextual Influences in Embodied Language

Embodied theories of cognition consider many aspects of language and other cognitive domains as the result of sensory and motor processes. In this view, the appraisal and the use of concepts are based on mechanisms of simulation grounded on prior sensorimotor experiences. Even though these theories continue receiving attention and support, increasing evidence indicates the need to consider the flexible nature of the simulation process, and to accordingly refine embodied accounts. In this consensus paper, we discuss two potential sources of variability in experimental studies on embodiment of language: individual differences and context. Specifically, we show how factors contributing to individual differences may explain inconsistent findings in embodied language phenomena. These factors include sensorimotor or cultural experiences, imagery, context-related factors, and cognitive strategies. We also analyze the different contextual modulations, from single words to sentences and narratives, as well as the top-down and bottom-up influences. Similarly, we review recent efforts to include cultural and language diversity, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and brain disorders, as well as bilingual evidence into the embodiment framework. We address the importance of considering individual differences and context in clinical studies to drive translational research more efficiently, and we indicate recommendations on how to correctly address these issues in future research. Systematically investigating individual differences and context may contribute to understanding the dynamic nature of simulation in language processes, refining embodied theories of cognition, and ultimately filling the gap between cognition in artificial experimental settings and cognition in the wild (i.e., in everyday life)

Supplements "Catch the star! Spatial information activates the manual motor system"

Supplementary materials for manuscript "Catch the star! Spatial information activates the manual motor system

Supplementary Materials "Sensorimotor semantic processing: Analysis of individual variability"

Supplementary Materials (data and analysis scripts) for the manuscript "Sensorimotor semantic processing: Analysis of individual variability