Fertility intentions and use of contraception among monogamous couples in northern Malawi in the context of HIV testing: a cross-sectional analysis.

CONTEXT: Knowledge of HIV status may influence fertility desires of married men and women. There is little knowledge about the importance of this influence among monogamously married couples and how knowledge of HIV status influences use of contraception among these couples. METHODOLOGY: We carried out a cross-sectional analysis of interview data collected between October 2008 and September 2009 on men aged 15-59 years and women aged 15-49 years who formed 1766 monogamously married couples within the Karonga Prevention Study demographic surveillance study in northern Malawi. RESULTS: 5% of men and 4% of women knew that they were HIV positive at the time of interview and 81% of men and 89% of women knew that they were HIV negative. 73% of men and 83% of women who knew that they were HIV positive stated that they did not want more children, compared to 35% of men and 38% of women who knew they were HIV negative. Concordant HIV positive couples were more likely than concordant negative couples to desire to stop child bearing (odds ratio 11.5, 95%CI 4.3-30.7, after adjusting for other factors) but only slightly more likely to use contraceptives (adjusted odds ratio 1.5 (95%CI 0.8-3.3). CONCLUSION: Knowledge of HIV positive status is associated with an increase in the reported desire to cease childbearing but there was limited evidence that this desire led to higher use of contraception. More efforts directed towards assisting HIV positive couples to access and use reproductive health services and limit HIV transmission among couples are recommended

Access to quality care after injury in Northern Malawi:results of a household survey

Background Most injury care research in low-income contexts such as Malawi is facility centric. Community-derived data is needed to better understand actual injury incidence, health system utilisation and barriers to seeking care following injury.MethodsWe administered a household survey to 2200 households in Karonga, Malawi. The primary outcome was injury incidence, with non-fatal injuries classified as major or minor (&gt; 30 or 1-29 disability days respectively). Those seeking medical treatment were asked about time delays to seeking, reaching and receiving care at a facility, where they sought care, and whether they attended a second facility. We performed analysis for associations between injury severity and whether the patient sought care, stayed overnight in a facility, attended a second facility, or received care within 1 or 2 hours. The reason for those not seeking care was asked. ResultsMost households (82.7%) completed the survey, with 29.2% reporting an injury. Overall, 611 non-fatal and four fatal injuries were reported from 531 households: an incidence of 6900 per 100,000. Major injuries accounted for 26.6%. Three quarters, 76.1% (465/611), sought medical attention. Almost all, 96.3% (448/465), seeking care attended a primary facility first. Only 29.7% (138/465), attended a second place of care. Only 32.0% (142/444), received care within one hour. A further 19.1% (85/444) received care within 2 hours. Major injury was associated with being more likely to have; sought care (94.4% vs 69.8% p&lt;0.001), stayed overnight at a facility (22.9% vs 15.4% P=0.047), attended a second place of care (50.3% vs 19.9%, P&lt;0.001). For those not seeking care the most important reason was the injury not being serious enough for 52.1% (74/142), followed by transport difficulties 13.4% (19/142) and financial costs 5.6% (8/142).ConclusionInjuries in Northern Malawi are substantial. Community-derived details are necessary to fully understand injury burden and barriers to seeking and reaching care. <br/

From kitchen to classroom: Assessing the impact of cleaner burning biomass-fuelled cookstoves on primary school attendance in Karonga district, northern Malawi

Household air pollution from burning solid fuels is responsible for an estimated 2.9 million premature deaths worldwide each year and 4.5% of global disability-adjusted life years, while cooking and fuel collection pose a considerable time burden, particularly for women and children. Cleaner burning biomass-fuelled cookstoves have the potential to lower exposure to household air pollution as well as reduce fuelwood demand by increasing the combustion efficiency of cooking fires, which may in turn yield ancillary benefits in other domains. The present paper capitalises on opportunities offered by the Cooking and Pneumonia Study (CAPS), the largest randomised trial of biomass-fuelled cookstoves on health outcomes conducted to date, the design of which allows for the evaluation of additional outcomes at scale. This mixed methods study assesses the impact of cookstoves on primary school absenteeism in Karonga district, northern Malawi, in particular by conferring health and time and resource gains on young people aged 5–18. The analysis combines quantitative data from 6168 primary school students with in-depth interviews and focus group discussions carried out among 48 students in the same catchment area in 2016. Negative binomial regression models find no evidence that the cookstoves affected primary school absenteeism overall [IRR 0.92 (0.71–1.18), p = 0.51]. Qualitative analysis suggests that the cookstoves did not sufficiently improve household health to influence school attendance, while the time and resource burdens associated with cooking activities—although reduced in intervention households—were considered to be compatible with school attendance in both trial arms. More research is needed to assess whether the cookstoves influenced educational outcomes not captured by the attendance measure available, such as timely arrival to school or hours spent on homework

Effect of Acute Illness on Contact Patterns, Malawi, 2017.

The way persons interact when ill could profoundly affect transmission of infectious agents. To obtain data on these patterns in Africa, we recorded self-reported named contacts and opportunities for casual contact in rural northern Malawi. We interviewed 384 patients and 257 caregivers about contacts over three 24-hour periods: day of the clinic visit for acute illness, the next day, and 2 weeks later when well. For participants of all ages, the number of adult contacts and the proportion using public transportation was higher on the day of the clinic visit than later when well. Compared with the day after the clinic visit, well participants (2 weeks later) named a mean of 0.4 extra contacts; the increase was larger for indoor or prolonged contacts. When well, participants were more likely to visit other houses and congregate settings. When ill, they had more visitors at home. These findings could help refine models of infection spread

An Assessment of Childbearing Preferences in Northern Malawi.

Fertility preferences are an essential component of family planning program evaluation; however, doubts about their validity in sub-Saharan Africa exist and little methodological assessment has been carried out. This study investigates prospective fertility intentions in terms of their temporal stability, intensity, degree of spousal agreement, and association with future childbearing in northern Malawi. A total of 5,222 married women participated in the three-round study. The odds of having a child or becoming pregnant within 36 months were 4.2 times higher when both wife and husband wanted a child within three years and 2 times higher when both wanted to wait at least three years, compared with the odds when both wanted to cease childbearing. The influence of husbands' and wives' preferences on subsequent fertility was equal. Compared with the intention to stop, the intention to postpone childbearing was less stable, recorded less spousal agreement, and was much less strongly predictive of fertility

Early school failure predicts teenage pregnancy and marriage: A large population-based cohort study in northern Malawi.

BACKGROUND: School dropout has been linked to early pregnancy and marriage but less is known about the effect of school performance. We aimed to assess whether school performance influenced age at sexual debut, pregnancy and marriage, and from what age school drop-out and performance were associated with these later life events. METHODS: Data from 2007-2016 from a demographic surveillance site in northern Malawi with annual updating of schooling status and grades, and linked sexual behaviour surveys, were analysed to assess the associations of age-specific school performance (measured as age-for-grade) and status (in or out of school) on subsequent age at sexual debut, pregnancy and marriage. Landmark analysis with Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratios of sexual debut, pregnancy and marriage by schooling at selected (landmark) ages, controlling for socio-economic factors. RESULTS: Information on at least one outcome was available for >16,000 children seen at ages 10-18. Sexual debut was available on a subset aged ≥15 by 2011. For girls, being out of school was strongly associated with earlier sexual debut, pregnancy and marriage. For example, using schooling status at age 14, compared to girls in primary, those who had dropped out had adjusted hazard ratios of subsequent sexual debut, pregnancy and marriage of 5.39 (95% CI 3.27-8.86), 2.39 (1.82-3.12), and 2.76 (2.08-3.67) respectively. For boys, the equivalent association with sexual debut was weak, 1.92 (0.81-4.55), but that with marriage was strong, 3.74 (2.28-6.11), although boys married later. Being overage-for-grade was not associated with sexual debut for girls or boys. For girls, being overage-for-grade from age 10 was associated with earlier pregnancy and marriage (e.g. adjusted hazard ratio 2.84 (1.32-6.17) for pregnancy and 3.19 (1.47-6.94) for marriage, for those ≥3 years overage compared to those on track at age 10). For boys, overage-for-grade was associated with earlier marriage from age 12, with stronger associations at older ages (e.g. adjusted hazard ratio 2.41 (1.56-3.70) for those ≥3 years overage compared to those on track at age 14). For girls ≥3 years overage at age 14, 39% were pregnant before they were 18, compared to 18% of those who were on track. The main limitation was the use of reported ages of sexual debut, pregnancy and marriage. CONCLUSIONS: School progression at ages as young as 10 can predict teenage pregnancy and marriage, even after adjusting for socio-economic factors. Early education interventions may reduce teenage pregnancy and marriage as well as improving learning

Does early linear growth failure influence later school performance? A cohort study in Karonga district, northern Malawi.

INTRODUCTION: Stunting or linear growth retardation in childhood is associated with delayed cognitive development due to related causes (malnutrition, illness, poor stimulation), which leads to poor school outcomes at later ages, although evidence of the association between the timing and persistence of stunting and school outcomes within the sub-Saharan African context is limited. METHODS: Anthropometric data around birth (0-4 months), early (11-16 months) and late childhood (ages 4-8 years) along with school outcomes up until the age of 11 were analysed for a cohort of 1,044 respondents, born between 2002-2004 in Karonga district, northern Malawi. The schooling outcomes were age at school enrolment, grade repetition in Standard 1 and age-for-grade by age 11. Height-for-Age Z-scores (HAZ) and growth trajectories were examined as predictors, based on stunting (<-2SD HAZ) and on trajectories between early and late childhood (never stunted, improvers, decliners or persistently stunted). Multinomial and logistic regression were used to estimate the association between stunting/trajectories and schooling, adjusted for socioeconomic confounders. RESULTS: The effects of stunting on schooling were evident in early childhood but were more pronounced in late childhood. Children who were stunted in early childhood (9.3%) were less likely to be underage at enrolment, more likely to repeat Standard 1 and were 2-3 times more likely to be overage for their grade by the age of 11, compared to their non-stunted peers. Those persistently stunted between early and late childhood (7.3%) faced the worst consequences on schooling, being three times as likely to enrol late and 3-5 times more likely to be overage for their grade by the age of 11, compared to those never stunted. Compared to improvers, those persistently stunted were three times as likely to be overage by two or more years by the age of 11, with no effect on enrolment or repetition. CONCLUSION: Our findings confirm the importance of early childhood stunting on schooling outcomes and suggest some mitigation by improvements in growth by the age of starting school. The nutritional and learning needs of those persistently stunted may need to be prioritised in future interventions

Implementing electronic data capture at a well-established health and demographic surveillance site in rural northern Malawi.

This article aims to assess multiple issues of resources, staffing, local opinion, data quality, cost, and security while transitioning to electronic data collection (EDC) at a long-running community research site in northern Malawi. Levels of missing and error fields, delay from data collection to availability, and average number of interviews per day were compared between EDC and paper in a complex, repeated annual household survey. Three focus groups with field and data staff with experience using both methods, and in-depth interviews with participants were carried out. Cost for each method were estimated and compared. Missing data was more common on paper questionnaires than on EDC, and a similar number were carried out per day. Fieldworkers generally preferred EDC, but data staff feared for their employment. Most respondents had no strong preference for a method. The cost of the paper system was estimated to be higher than using EDC. The existing infrastructure and technical expertise could be adapted to using EDC, but changes have an impact on data processing jobs as fewer, and better qualified staff are required. EDC is cost-effective, and, for a long-running site, may offer further savings, as devices can be used in multiple studies and perform several other functions. EDC is accepted by fieldworkers and respondents, has good levels of quality and timeliness, and security can be maintained. EDC is well-suited for use in a well-established research site using and developing existing infrastructure and expertise