The increased fishing pressure and the future of the fish stocks of Lake Victoria, Uganda

The Uganda sector of Lake Victoria occupies 29,580 km2 (43%). The lake used to boast of a multi-species fishery but presently relies on three major species Lates niloticus, Oreochromis niloticus and Rastrineobola argentea. During the past decade the total fish production on the Ugandan sector increased drastically from 17,000 tonnes in 1981 to about 13,000 tonnes 1991, indicating a healthy state of the fishery. This was contributed by a combination of factors including the explosive establishment of the introduced L. niloticus which contributed 60.8% in 1991 and the increase in the number of fishing canoes from 3470 in 1988 to 8000 in 1990. Isolated fishery resources studies carried out in different areas of the lake since 1971 seem, however, to indicate contrary trends in the available stocks and, therefore, the status of the fishery. In the experimental fishery, continued decline in catch rates have been recorded. Similarly, in the commercial fishery catch per unit of effort has been considerably poor (33 kg per canoe during January - March 1992) and the average size of individual fish laRded continued to decline, obviously pointing at possible over-fishing. This, therefore, calls for further urgent research on the available stocks for proper management strategies to be formulated

On the present fishery of Lake Wamala

A relatively small (180 km) and shallow (4.3 metres maximum depth in 1974) Lake Wamala, in central Uganda, was in 1956 stocked with the tilapiine species mainly Oreochromis niloticus (Tilapia nilotica), O. leucostictus (T. leucosticta) and Tilapia zillii (Okaronon 1987). The Lake provided a successful and profitable commercial fishing after it was opened to commercial fishing in 1960. During the 1960s and early 1970s the annual landed catches were estimated at 5000 metric tons on average; over 50% of the landed catch was composed of O. niloticus. A maximum of 250 canoes were licensed to operate on thi lake annually and each canoe was permitted to use a maximum of 10 gillnets of not less than 127mm mesh. Most of the fish was sold fresh to local communities and also to distant markets including Kampala. Following increasing number of canoes during the late 1960s and increased use of small mesh-sized (illegal) gillnets - and other illegal fishing practices - the annual fish production from the lake declined by about 93% from 7100 tons in 1967 to 500 tons in 1982 (Okaronon, op. cit). The average weight of the landed individual fish of O. niloticus - the predominant commercial fish species - also declined by about 57% from 716g in 1969 to 305g by 1976. During the period 1981/86 the area surrounding the lake was subjected to a guerrilla war and period of drought, resulting in a virtual halt of fishing activity and reduction in the size of the lake, respectively. These, too, inevitably led to stunting in the fishery and, consequently, to almost no commercial fish production. In 1988, following the end of the guerrilla war, scientific surveys of the lake's fisheries resources were resumed. The surveys aimed at assessing the status of the lake's fishery following the 1981/86 period of no fishing activity and prolonged dry season. The specific objectives included the determination of (a) catch composition, (b) the size structure of the harvestable fish stocks based on length frequency distribution, and (c) an estimate of abundance of exploited fish stocks based on catch per unit of effort. This paper, therefore, presents some of the results of the surveys during the period 1988-1991

Assessment of the performance of beach management units (BMUs) on Lakes Victoria, Albert, Kyoga and George

Until the late 1990s the fisheries of Ugandan lakes had been managed by government where stakeholders were excluded from the decision-making process. In order to involve other stakeholders, co-management was adopted. Operationalising Co-management on landing sites has led to the formation of BMUs at gazetted landing sites. A BMU is made up of a BMU assembly and the BMU committee that it elects. A BMU committee should be: 30% boat owners; 30% boat barias 30% including fish processors, boat makers, local gear makers and repairers, fishing input dealers and managers and 10% fish mongers/traders; and if possible, 30% women. To operate at a particular landing site, one must be registered with the BMU. The BMU assembly is the supreme organ of a BMU empowered to elect, approve and remove the BMU committe

Issues of HIV/AIDS/ health among the fisher communities of Lake Albert and Kyoga

The fisheries resources of Lakes Albert and Kyoga present a high potential for economic growth, food, employment and foreign earnings. However, livelihoods appear to be compromised with the emergence and rapid spread of HIV/AIDS in the fisher communities of L. Albert and Kyoga. HIV/AIDS is considered a silent epidemic that is unique, posing a great challenge to the fisheries managers, health service providers, development planners and the resource users themselves. Fishers have high HIV prevalence, as well as AIDS-related illnesses and mortality rates. The high HIV prevalence rates among the fishing communities in Uganda is between 10-40% compared to the national rates which lie between 6% and 7%. This indicates that the national programmes have not adequately addressed the plight of the fishing communities of Lakes Albert, and Kyoga and the consequences have been devastating. Men and women living in fishing villages across the world have been found to be between five and ten times more vulnerable to the disease than other communities (Tarzan et al 2005, FAO, 2007). The present prevalence rates among the fishing communities stands at 10 to 40 % (LVFO, 2008). Meanwhile the same fishing communities are the essential labour for the Lakes’ fishery industry which is thriving nationally and internationally. That resource potentially can alleviate poverty and the HIV/AIDS threat. Fishing communities are the hidden victims of the disease, mixing patterns with the general population could act as a reservoir of infection that could spill over into the general population to drive the epidemic. On L. Albert, a quarter of the fisher folk were HIV-positive by 1992 compared to 4% in a nearby Agricultural village. Since then, there have been no targeted studies to address or monitor the prevalence rates eight years later, yet the multiplicity factor is high. HIV/AIDS can be linked to unsustainable fisheries, as the labour force available would not go to deep waters to fish, instead would fish in the shallow waters as a coping mechanism. A further effect is the loss to National and local economies and reduced nutritional security for the wider population. HIV/AIDS remains a significant challenge that has created a mosaic of complexity in the fishery sector. This needs to be addressed. It is, therefore, paramount that a comprehensive study was under taken to address this pandemic and the phenomenon of HIV/AIDS based on the study objectives. 1. To determine the trend in HIV/AIDS infection among fishing communities and the factors affecting it 2. To assess the impacts of HIV/AIDS on fish production and the implications for fisheries management

Evaluation degree of degraded rangeland on grazing communities in Kenya.

Most of 80% of Kenya´s land is categorized as arid and semi-arid. Agropastoralism and pastoralism based on livestock production serve as the bedrock of site livelihoods and culture. Pastoralists? livelihoods are affected by frequent and severe droughts, growing demographic pressure and conflicts over natural resource utilization. Vulnerability worsened by accessible grazing lands is often mismanaged and either overgrazed or underutilized leading to land degradation. This work aimed to develop a score index to classify degraded land degree to help technician and pastoralist in adequate use of tools to recovery degraded lands. This trial was conducted using participatory research with four grazing communities (Bisan Biliquo, Bulesa, Korbesa and Malkagalla) in Kenyan dry land from May 2011 to November 2012. There were characterized three sites in each community. First of all, a general characterization was made. In this first characterization were collected information about soil, plant, land use, water source distance and wildlife. Based on this information was chosen spots to make monitoring rangeland on each site. Transect method was used to collect information about bare ground (%), plant cover(%), plant height(cm), number of species(unit), biomass(kg) and litter (kg) production. A practical sheet from Mpala Institute was used to collect data on field. These five parameters were chosen because it was easier to collect by technician and pastoralist. Each parameter was classified in categories according type of measure (%, kg or cm) and could be analyzed and received a grade between 0 and 5. From summing the grades a score index was created to classify stage of degraded land. Five categories were made: 1-6 grades meant high degraded land; 7-12 degraded rangeland; 13-18 recovery rangeland; 19-24 good rangeland and 25-30 healthy rangeland. None of the sites got good or healthy rangeland. In fact all these areas are included in a program to recovering degraded land. The best situation was found in Bulesa where most of areas were classified as recovery land. In this case was recommended to reduce grazing pressure in order to improve litter production. Korbesa place second and was classified as recovery land. It was recommended basically management adjustment for improve biomass production. Bisan Biliquo areas were classified as high or degraded and needed some interventions on management level. In one spot and reseeding was recommended in the two others. Malkagalla was the worse scored site and presented the worse condition rangeland. All spots monitored were classified as high degraded land. Management intervention in this place should be directed to recover biodiversity by reseeding native species and improve biomass production Based on this was highly recommended exclude animal grazing during a period of time. Tools to monitoring rangeland and support diagnostic for degraded lands can be useful to identify problems and propose solutions to recovery degraded lands in dry rangelands

Diversity of herbaceous forage species as sustainability indicator in Kenyan Rangeland.

Rangelands in Kenya make up for 70% of the land and hosts 60% of its livestock population. This ecosystem is largely inhabited by nomadic pastoralists whose livelihood depents on livestock. Land subdivision, population growth, climate change, devastating droughts, land degradation and unsustainable land use practices threaten the future of pastoralist and wildlife conservation in the rangelands. Knowledge about diversity of species is an important indicator of degraded land in the rangelands. Monitoring forage species can be a way to help livestock owning communities and farmers to recover degraded land and improve the natural environment. This study aimed to identify main herbaceous species present in nomadic pastoralist and farm rangelands in Kenya. This trial was conducted during the wet season in 2012. Two different environments were visited during a research expedition. Ol Maisor a commercial ranch that has been utilizing Holistic Management for the past years is located in Laikipia County. The second one being in Merti, Isiolo County composed of four sites: Bisan Biliquo, Bulesa, Korbesa and Malkagalla and being managed by the Merti Grazing Committee, a nomadic pastoralist community. Five randomly selected sites were visited in Ol Maisor and twelve sites in Merti. All sites were identified by GPS and their coordinates recorded. In each site, plants were collected to make exsiccates using traditional techniques (by press). Botanic characterization was done by identification of family, genus and species at the Herbarium of the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in Kiboko. At Ol Maisor Ranch the dominant family found was Poaceae (grasses). This family represents the most important species for grazing lands in Kenya indicating good and healthy rangelands. It was possible to identify 51 different grass species at Ol Maisor Ranch. At least, 13 genera were identified at least seven to eight times in this location: Aristida, Bothrichloa, Cenchrus, Cynodon, Digitaria, Eragrostis, Harpchne, Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum, Setaria, Themeda, Trachypogon. Eragrostis tenuiflora was the most abundant species. This grass is a poor constituent of pasture once livestock prefers other more palatable species when it is available. In Merti, forb were identified as more than 50% of the botanic pasture composition. The total number of species found were 67. At least ten different botanic families were present in this region: Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Combretaceae, Fabaceae, Labiatae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, Onagraceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae and Sollanaceae. It was possible to identify 11 genera of grasses: Aristida, Cenchrus, Chloris, Cyprus, Digitaria, Eleusine, Eragrostis, Hyperenia, Panicum, Sehima, Tetrapogon. The most frequent genus was Eragrostis. Among the forb only three genera were important: Sida, Barelia and Ocimum. Two of these can be used as indicator of degraded lands and they were present in large areas. In Merti the observed biodiversity shows a potential for various livestock species other than cattle such as sheep, goats and other ruminants to use the land for grazing, Ol Maisor?s rangeland is more appropriate for cattle grazing, but it is necessary to monitor some of the less palatable species found in large density and the possibility to substitute it with better grass species. In both places a good biodiversity could be identified, however, it is necessary to carry out annual monitoring in order to keep weeds under control in the Kenyan rangelands

Determinants of contract farming for smallholder sunflower producers in northern Uganda

Contract farming is a form of vertical coordination, largely aimed at correcting market failures associated with spot markets that arise due to imperfect information. The objective of this study was to assess the determinants of farmer engagement in sunflower ( Helianthus annus L.) contracts in northern Uganda. Stratified random sampling was used to select 150 contracted and 150 non-contracted sunflower farmers in Oyam District, from where primary data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. A Logistic regression model was used to examine the factors that influenced farmer participation in contract farming. The major determinants of participation in contract farming by smallholder farmers were age (P<0.1), sunflower production experience (P<0.01), access to credit (P<0.01) and unit produce price (P<0.01).Collaborative efforts by all parties engaged in contracting arrangements are necessary to negotiate a minimum price with the farmers, with a possibility to re-negotiate whenever the market price is above the set price. The study pointed out that improvement in rural roads to enhance transportation of produce to mini-store is vital in driving sunflower contract farming in Oyam district. Therefore, policies aimed at improving rural roads are urgently needed.L\u2019agriculture contractuelle est une forme de coordination verticale, qui vise principalement \ue0 corriger les d\ue9faillances du march\ue9 associ\ue9es aux march\ue9s qui surviennent avec d\u2019informations imparfaites. L\u2019objectif de cette \ue9tude \ue9tait d\u2019\ue9valuer les d\ue9terminants de l\u2019engagement des agriculteurs dans les contrats de tournesol ( Helianthus annus L.) dans le Nord de l\u2019Ouganda. Un \ue9chantillonnage al\ue9atoire stratifi\ue9 a \ue9t\ue9 utilis\ue9 pour s\ue9lectionner 150 cultivateurs de tournesol sous contrat et 150 sans contrat dans le district d\u2019Oyam, \ue0 partir desquels les donn\ue9es primaires ont \ue9t\ue9 collect\ue9es \ue0 l\u2019aide d\u2019un questionnaire semi-structur\ue9. Un mod\ue8le de r\ue9gression logistique a \ue9t\ue9 utilis\ue9 pour examiner les facteurs qui ont influenc\ue9 la participation des agriculteurs \ue0 l\u2019agriculture contractuelle. Les d\ue9terminants principaux de la participation \ue0 l\u2019agriculture contractuelle des petits exploitants agricoles \ue9taient l\u2019\ue2ge (P <0,1), l\u2019exp\ue9rience de production de tournesol (P <0,01), l\u2019acc\ue8s au cr\ue9dit (P <0,01) et le prix unitaire des produits (P <0,01). Les parties engag\ue9es dans des accords contractuels sont n\ue9cessaires pour n\ue9gocier un prix minimum avec les agriculteurs, avec la possibilit\ue9 de ren\ue9gocier chaque fois que le prix du march\ue9 est sup\ue9rieur au prix fix\ue9. L\u2019\ue9tude a soulign\ue9 que l\u2019am\ue9lioration des routes rurales pour am\ue9liorer le transport des produits vers les mini-magasins est essentielle pour stimuler l\u2019agriculture contractuelle de tournesol dans le district d\u2019Oyam. Par cons\ue9quent, des politiques visant \ue0 am\ue9liorer les routes rurales sont n\ue9cessaires de toute urgence

On-farm evaluation of effectiveness of improved postharvest handling of maize in reducing grain losses, mold infection and aflatoxin contamination in rural Uganda

Postharvest losses remain a challenge among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The uses of hermetic storage containers  (hermetic bags and metallic silos), tarpaulin sheet (plastic sheet) and raised racks reduce postharvest deterioration of grain. This study evaluated the effectiveness of selected improved drying and storage postharvest technologies and practices in reducing maize grain postharvest losses among smallholder farmers in Kamuli and Apac districts, Uganda. The assessed improved storage technologies were hermetic bags and metallic silos against woven polypropylene bags (common farmer practice). For drying, use of tarpaulins and raised racks were assessed against drying on bare ground (common farmer practice). Grain quality and quantity were determined at harvest as well as during drying and six months of storage using Longe 10H variety. Mean quantitative losses, mold infection and aflatoxin level of maize at harvest were 13.72 ± 5.44%, 59.01 ± 17.97% and 1.21 ± 0.7 ppb, respectively for traditional practice. Improved drying and storage technologies resulted in significantly lower (p≤0.05) losses, mold infection and aflatoxin level than the common  farmer practices. Drying on bare ground (3.04 ± 1.50%) resulted in 1.94 times and 7.07 times higher quantitative losses than drying on  tarpaulins (1.56 ± 1.09%) and raised racks (0.43 ± 0.58%). By the sixth month of storage, polypropylene bag storage resulted in 3.7 times and 84 times higher quantitative losses (23.7 ± 5.11%) than hermetic bags (6.33 ± 5.41%) and metallic silos (0.28 ± 0.22%), respectively. Polypropylene bag storage also resulted in 4.4 times and 6 times higher aflatoxin levels (45.82 ± 20.88 ppb) than hermetic bags and metallic silos, respectively. The interaction effects of type of drying technology and storage technology used on aflatoxin levels at the end of the storage period was significant. The highest mold infection and aflatoxin levels were observed when drying was done on bare ground and storage was in polypropylene bags and by the sixth month of storage, mold infection was 90.54 ± 5.48% and average aflatoxin content was 53.47 ± 22.79 ppb. Storage in metallic silos was the most effective in controlling mold infection and aflatoxin contamination, regardless of drying practice, while storage in polypropylene bags was the least effective. From the results, improved drying and storage technologies and practices were found to reduce postharvest maize losses, mold infection and aflatoxin level by over 50%. Use of raised drying racks and storage in metallic silos was found to be the most effective combination in maintaining maizequality and reducing postharvest losses. Key words: Aflatoxins, maize quality, mold infection, grain storage, postharvest losse

Contribution of fisheries to the balance of payment position in Uganda

Since mid 1980, the Government has been faced with a collapsing economy in which coffee generated 96% of the export earnings and financed 70% of the import bill (MPED, 1987). To redress the macroeconomic imbalances, it launched a number of economic reforms aimed at economic rehabilitation, growth and development (MPED, 1987; MFEP, 1992a). One of the reform objectives has been to reduce the deficit in the Balance of Payments (BOP) current account through export promotion and diversification. The results have been mixed. Whereas hitherto non-traded products (at least officially) such as fish entered the export market, the' external imbalance increased. Fish exports increased from 0.1% of total export value in 1988 to 3.0 % in 1991 and are projected to rise even further (EPADU, 1992; MAAIF, 1991). The Balance of Payment current account deficit, on the other hand, increased considerably from 1.7% of GDP in 1987 to 5.6% in 1990 as a result of a rapid rise in imports and a dramatic decline in coffee export prices (Bank of Uganda, 1992). Further, the ratio of coffee exports to total export value fell from 96% in 1989 to 65% in 1991 (MFEP,1992b)

Inland wetlands mapping and vulnerability assessment using an integrated geographic information system and remote sensing techniques

The understanding of inland wetlands’ distribution and their level of vulnerability is important to enhance management and conservation efforts. The aim of the study was to map inland wetlands and assess their distribution pattern and vulnerability to natural and human disturbances such as climate change (temperature increase) and human activities by the year 2080. Inland wetland types i.e. forested/shrub, emergent and open water bodies were classified and mapped using maximum likelihood standard algorithm. The spatial distribution pattern of inland wetlands was examined using average nearest neighbor analysis. A weighted geospatial vulnerability analysis was developed using variables such as roads, land cover/ land use (developed and agricultural areas) and climate data (temperature) to predict potentially vulnerable inland wetland types. Inland wetlands were successfully classified and mapped with overall accuracy of about 73 percent. Clustered spatial distribution pattern was found among all inland wetland types with varied degree of clustering. The study found about 13 percent of open water bodies, 11 percent of forested/shrub and 7 percent of emergent wetlands potentially most vulnerable to human and natural stressors. This information could be used to improve wetland planning and management by wetland managers and other stakeholders