AI is a viable alternative to high throughput screening: a 318-target study

: High throughput screening (HTS) is routinely used to identify bioactive small molecules. This requires physical compounds, which limits coverage of accessible chemical space. Computational approaches combined with vast on-demand chemical libraries can access far greater chemical space, provided that the predictive accuracy is sufficient to identify useful molecules. Through the largest and most diverse virtual HTS campaign reported to date, comprising 318 individual projects, we demonstrate that our AtomNet® convolutional neural network successfully finds novel hits across every major therapeutic area and protein class. We address historical limitations of computational screening by demonstrating success for target proteins without known binders, high-quality X-ray crystal structures, or manual cherry-picking of compounds. We show that the molecules selected by the AtomNet® model are novel drug-like scaffolds rather than minor modifications to known bioactive compounds. Our empirical results suggest that computational methods can substantially replace HTS as the first step of small-molecule drug discovery

The active ClpP protease from M. tuberculosis is a complex composed of a heptameric ClpP1 and a ClpP2 ring

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) contains two clpP genes, both of which are essential for viability. We expressed and purified Mtb ClpP1 and ClpP2 separately. Although each formed a tetradecameric structure and was processed, they lacked proteolytic activity. We could, however, reconstitute an active, mixed ClpP1P2 complex after identifying N-blocked dipeptides that stimulate dramatically (>1000-fold) ClpP1P2 activity against certain peptides and proteins. These activators function cooperatively to induce the dissociation of ClpP1 and ClpP2 tetradecamers into heptameric rings, which then re-associate to form the active ClpP1P2 2-ring mixed complex. No analogous small molecule-induced enzyme activation mechanism involving dissociation and re-association of multimeric rings has been described. ClpP1P2 possesses chymotrypsin and caspase-like activities, and ClpP1 and ClpP2 differ in cleavage preferences. The regulatory ATPase ClpC1 was purified and shown to increase hydrolysis of proteins by ClpP1P2, but not peptides. ClpC1 did not activate ClpP1 or ClpP2 homotetradecamers and stimulated ClpP1P2 only when both ATP and a dipeptide activator were present. ClpP1P2 activity, its unusual activation mechanism and ClpC1 ATPase represent attractive drug targets to combat tuberculosis

Structure of the drug target ClpC1 unfoldase in action provides insights on antibiotic mechanism of action

The unfoldase ClpC1 is one of the most exciting drug targets against tuberculosis. This AAA+ unfoldase works in coopera-tion with the ClpP1P2 protease and is the target of at least four natural product antibiotics: cyclomarin, ecumicin, lassomycin, and rufomycin. Although these molecules are promising starting points for drug development, their mechanisms of action remain largely unknown. Taking advantage of a middle domain mutant, we determined the first structure of Myco-bacterium tuberculosis ClpC1 in its apo, cyclomarin-, and ecumicin-bound states via cryo-EM. The obtained structure displays features observed in other members of the AAA+ family and provides a map for further drug development. While the apo and cyclomarin-bound structures are indistinguishable and have N-terminal domains that are invisible in their respective EM maps, around half of the ecumicin-bound ClpC1 particles display three of their six N-terminal domains in an extended conformation. Our structural observations suggest a mechanism where ecumicin functions by mimicking substrate binding, leading to ATPase activation and changes in protein degradation profile

Inducible protein degradation demonstrates requirement of ClpP2 for normal growth.

<p>(A) Schematic representation of the inducible degradation system used to inducibly deplete ClpP2 (Msm strain clpP2_ID). Induction of HIV-2 protease with ATc leads to cleavage of the HIV-2 protease cutting site and exposure of a SsrA tag on the tagged protein. Cleavage by HIV-2 protease and subsequent degradation can be tracked via the FLAG (square) and c-myc (circle) epitope tags, respectively, included on the inducible degradation tag. (B) Degradation of ClpP2 in clpP2_ID was tracked by Western in the absence or presence of inducer ATc. Blots were probed α-FLAG (loss indicates HIV-2 protease cleavage), α-myc (loss indicates target degradation), and α-RpoB (loading control). (C) Growth curves of Msm clpP2_ID in the absence or presence (50 ng/mL) of inducer ATc. Msm clpP2_ID was also complemented with clpP2 in the presence of ATc. Data are represented as mean CFU/mL +/− standard deviation.</p

Clp protease is required for degradation of abnormal proteins and SsrA-tagged proteins in mycobacteria.

<p>(A) Growth curves of Msm ptet_clpP2 in growth medium containing low (1 ng/mL) or high (100 ng/mL) concentrations of inducer ATc, in the presence of either no drug, or amikacin (top left, 0.03 µg/mL), streptomycin (top right, 0.125 µg/mL), and chloramphenicol (bottom, 7.5 µg/mL). Data are represented as mean OD₆₀₀ +/− standard deviation. Dashed lines represent assumed growth rates until first measured growth point. (B) Increase in fluorescence (RFU, 485/520) and initial growth curve (OD₆₀₀) of Msm clpP2_ID expressing the fusion construct GFP-SsrA on a constitutively expressing plasmid, in the presence and absence of inducer, ATc. Data are represented as mean RFU or OD₆₀₀ +/− standard deviation. (C) Depletion of ClpP2 and increase in GFP-SsrA in Msm clpP2_ID expressing the fusion construct GFP-SsrA on a constitutively expressing plasmid was tracked by immunoblot. Blots were probed α-GFP, α-myc, α-FLAG, and α-RpoB (loading control).</p

Mtb ClpP1 and ClpP2 interact, forming a multi-component protease, and share substantial similarity with ClpP1 and ClpP2 homologs in Msm.

<p>(A) C-terminally myc-tagged Mtb ClpP1 and 6×His-tagged Mtb ClpP2 were expressed in Msm. Lysate (lane 1) was prepared and loaded onto a Ni-column. After washing with PBS (lanes 2,3), Ni-bound material was eluted with 50 mM (lane 4), 100 mM (lane 5), 250 mM (lane 6, 7) of imidazole in PBS, and analyzed by immunoblotting using anti α-myc and α-6×His antibodies. (B) Fraction 6 from (A) was applied to an anti-myc column (lane 1). The flow through (lane 2), and bound material (lane 3) were analyzed by immunoblot with α-myc and α-His antibodies. Bound material was released from the anti-myc agarose beads by boiling in Laemmli buffer after washing with PBS. (C) Bands representing ClpP1 and ClpP2 from (B) were sequenced by MS/MS revealing the presence of both Mtb and Msm homologs. Msm specific peptides are indicated by black lines, those specific to Mtb are indicated by red lines. (D) Cleavage of fluorescent peptide Z-Gly-Gly-Leu-AMC was measured in the presence of 1 µg ClpP1, 1 µg Clp2, and the activating peptide Z-Leu-Leu (see accompanying paper). Addition of 5 µg of catalytically inactive mutants of either ClpP1 (ClpP1S) or ClpP2 (ClpP2S) markedly inhibited cleavage by the ClpP1P2 protease. Results graphed are a representative sample of results obtained.</p

A catalytically inactive ClpP allele inhibit Mtb growth <i>in vitro and during infection</i>.

<p>(A) Growth curves for Mtb overexpressing wild type ClpP1 or ClpP1 S98A via an ATc-inducible expression vector. Data are represented as mean OD₆₀₀ +/− standard deviation. Dashed lines represent assumed growth rates until first measured growth point. (B) Growth of Mtb containing a doxycycline-inducible plasmid expressing the mutant allele ClpP1 S98A in lungs of C57BL/6 mice 30 days post aerosol infection. Mice were infected via aerosol with a 3∶1 mixture of mutant and wild type bacteria. Mice were fed either with chow containing (dark squares, N = 5 mice) or lacking (gray triangles, N = 5 mice) the inducer doxycycline. As a control, wild type Mtb was co-infected, and representative CFU/organs for the control are represented (right). Each point represents calculated total CFU/organ for each mouse. Not all mice received enough wild type bacteria to quantitate.</p

Both ClpP1 and ClpP2 are essential for normal growth in mycobacteria.

<p>(A) Schematic representation of mycobacterial recombineering, employed to replace the endogenous promoter of the clpP1P2 operon with a ATc-inducible promoter (Msm strain ptet_clpP1P2). (B) Growth curves of Msm ptet_clpP1P2 in the presence (50 ng/mL) or absence of inducer ATc. Data are represented as mean CFU/mL +/− standard deviation. (C) Growth curves of Msm ptet_clpP1P2 complemented with clpP1, clpP2 or both clpP1 and clpP2 in the absence of inducer ATc. Data are represented as mean CFU/mL +/− standard deviation. (D) Schematic representation of genetic strategy used to create a tetracycline inducible conditional Msm ClpP2 mutant (Msm strain ptet_ClpP2) (E) Growth curves of Msm ptet_clpP2 in the presence (50 ng/mL) or absence of inducer ATc. Msm ptet_clpP2 was also complemented with clpP2 in the absence of ATc. Data are represented as mean OD₆₀₀ +/− standard deviation. Dashed lines represent assumed growth rates until first measured growth point.</p