FACILITATING FINANCIAL INCLUSION USING ICT: LESSONS FROM M-PESA AND E-ZWICH

Financial inclusion is a priority in most developing countries. While the inclusion approaches may differ, the primary aim remains enrolling the unbanked into the formal economy. This paper adopts Critical Realism as a lens to compare the efforts of two inclusion models; M-PESA from Kenya and ezwich in Ghana. The findings reveal that while both models do not provide the infrastructure for people to build trust, the enrolment successes of both models differ significantly

Towards an ICT artefact for financial inclusion in Ghana: a critical realist perspective

Financial exclusion is a major developmental problem. Perception has it that financial exclusion emanates from the lack of access to banking and financial services, and the general understanding is that ICT-based access to such services is the solution. In this research, which was undertaken in Ghana, Critical Realism (CR) revealed deeper causes (generative mechanisms) that underlie financial exclusion. The research followed a mixed-method approach. The CR approach guided the research to create an initial model from which hypotheses were deduced and tested; the design science approach, guided the research to create the design theory and an instantiation of an application that uses the design theory; and the quantitative method, was used to evaluate the hypotheses. CR revealed how, in a credit economy, people have a need for credit to pursue business or education opportunities. The generative mechanisms identified have revealed how the credit market for the unbanked includes the reality that a wellfunctioning credit market is self-sustaining with two mechanisms: signalling and adoption. The signalling mechanism facilitates users’ access to credit, which they in turn are able to spend on more services. On the other hand, the adoption mechanism enables the development of more services making the market more valuable, thus attracting more users in a self-feeding loop. The key findings suggest that being banked does not necessarily lead to financial inclusion and financial wellbeing. Transactional banking only serves as an "enrichment agenda for the banks", with minimal benefit to the people. There are also other non-financial technologies such as sharing and social technologies that have an effect on the provision of credit; in addition to their main purpose of saving and/or earning income, for the unbanked, by sharing resources. In Ghana, despite having bank accounts, most of the banked do not use them, because of cost and inappropriate services. This research reveals that the unexamined notion of being banked as a fundamental requirement for financial inclusion may require further investigation. The research has found that the unbanked keeping to themselves and the use of cash creates anonymity and makes them invisible to formal financial institutions, who prefer identity over anonymity, thus contributing to their financial exclusion. The following design needs were identified: inexpensive credit and value-added services such as saving groups, financial accounting services, service to report delinquent customers and education. The research offers a conceptualization of a financial inclusion ICT artefact to draw attention to the multifaceted and complex environment financial inclusion effort is immersed. This calls for an integrated approach since the issues with financial exclusion extend beyond financials and have an effect on the broader society. The research, therefore, proposes a substantive framework for improving the design and development of financial inclusive systems, which helps build trust using obligation transactions. It offers an approach to computing an individual’s financial inclusiveness, which also helps safeguard his/her financial wellbeing. The thesis makes a contribution to Information Systems theory in proposing a framework on financial inclusion using ICT. The contribution to practice is the design of an ICT artefact.School of ComputingPh. D. (Computer Science

PHYTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION AND ANTI-MICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF CLAUSENA ANISATA (WILLD), HOOK.

Background: Clausena anisata belongs to the family Rutaceae, a shrub widely used in West Africa for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections of the skin including boils, ringworm and eczema. The study was designed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of ethanol leaf extract of C. anisata (CLE). Method: Antimicrobial activity of CLE was investigated using agar well diffusion and micro-dilution methods against four Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus substilis NCTC 10073, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Bacillus thuringiensis ATCC 13838) and two Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 4853, Proteus vulgaris ATCC 4175) and a clinical isolate of Candida albicans. Results: CLE was active against all test organisms with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), range of 0.5 to 7.0 mg/mL against Gram-positive bacteria, 2.5 to 1.0 mg/mL against Gram-negative bacteria and 5.5mg/mL against C. albicans. The MICs of the methanol fraction of CLE were 0.6 mg to 5.0/mL and 1.0 to 3.0 mg/mL for Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria respectively. Chloroform fraction had MIC of 3.0 to 7.5 mg/mL and 2.0 to 6.5 mg/mL for Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively and petroleum ether fraction had 4.5 to 8.0 mg/mL for Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The CLE exhibited static action against all test organisms within a range of 0.5 to 22.0 mg/mL. Phytochemical screening of C. anisata revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, glycosides and alkaloids. HPLC finger-printing of the CLE and its fractions were determined. Conclusion: These results may justify the medicinal uses of C. anisata for the treatment of microbial infection

Who sleeps under bednets in Ghana? A doer/non-doer analysis of malaria prevention behaviours

BACKGROUND: Malaria prevention programmes should be based in part on knowledge of why some individuals use bednets while others do not. This paper identifies factors and characteristics of women that affect bednet use among their children less than five years of age in Ghana. METHODS: Data come from the baseline component of an evaluation of Freedom from Hunger's malaria curriculum. A quasi-experimental design was used to select clients (n = 516) of Credit with Education (an integrated package of microfinance and health education) and non-clients (n = 535). Chi-squares, Fisher's Exact tests and logistic regression were used to compare the characteristics of mothers whose children use bednets (doers) with those whose children do not (non-doers) and to identify factors associated with bednet use among children less than five years of age. RESULTS: The following factors were most closely associated with bednet use: region of residence; greater food security; and caregivers' beliefs about symptoms, causation and groups most vulnerable to malaria. Most respondents knew mosquitoes caused malaria; however, 20.6% of doers and 12.3% of non-doers (p = .0228) thought overworking oneself caused malaria. Ninety percent of doers and 77.0% of non-doers felt that sleeping under a net was protective against malaria (p = .0040). In addition, 16.5% of doers and 7.5% of non-doers (p = .0025) identified adult males as most vulnerable to malaria. CONCLUSION: Greater knowledge about malaria does not always translate into improved bednet use. Though culturally-based ideas about malaria may vary between communities, integrating them into traditional health education messages may enhance the effectiveness of public health efforts