Inhibition of eIF2α dephosphorylation inhibits ErbB2-induced deregulation of mammary acinar morphogenesis

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The ErbB2/Her2/Neu receptor tyrosine kinase is amplified in ~30% of human breast cancers. Phosphorylation of the translation initiation factor, eIF2α inhibits global protein synthesis and activates a stress signaling and growth suppressive program. We have shown that forced phosphorylation of eIF2α can suppress head and neck, colorectal carcinoma and multiple myeloma tumor growth and/or survival. Here we explore whether ErbB2 modulates eIF2α phosphorylation and whether forced phosphorylation of the latter can antagonize ErbB2 deregulation of mammary acinar morphogenesis.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We tested whether ErbB2 signaling influenced eIF2α signaling and whether enhanced phosphorylation of the latter affected ErbB2-deregulated mammary acinar development. We obtained stable MCF10A cells overexpressing wild-type (Wt) Neu/ErbB2 or a constitutively active (CA) variant via retroviral delivery or mammary tumor cells from MMTV-Neu tumors. Western blotting, RT-PCR and confocal microscopy were used to analyze the effects of ErbB2 activation on eIF2α signaling and the effect of the GADD34-PP1C inhibitor salubrinal. Wt- and MMTV-Neu cells formed aberrant acini structures resembling DCIS, while CA-ErbB2 overexpression induced invasive lesions. In these structures we found that CA-ErbB2 but not the Wt variant significantly down-regulated the pro-apoptotic gene CHOP. This occurred without apparent modulation of basal phosphorylation of PERK and eIF2α or induction of its downstream target ATF4. However, inhibition of eIF2α dephosphorylation with salubrinal was sufficient to inhibit Wt- and CA-ErbB2- as well as MMTV-Neu-induced deregulation of acinar growth. This was linked to enhanced CHOP expression, inhibition of proliferation, induction of apoptosis and luminal clearing in Wt-ErbB2 and to inhibition of cyclin D1 levels and subsequent proliferation in CA-ErbB2 cells.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Depending on the strength of ErbB2 signaling there is a differential regulation of CHOP and eIF2α phosphorylation. ErbB2 uncouples in basal conditions eIF2α phosphorylation from CHOP induction. However, this signal was restored by salubrinal treatment in Wt-ErbB2 expressing MCF10A cells as these DCIS-like structures underwent luminal clearing. In CA-ErbB2 structures apoptosis is not induced by salubrinal and instead a state of quiescence with reduced proliferation was achieved. Treatments that stabilize P-eIF2α levels may be effective in treating ErbB2 positive cancers without severely disrupting normal tissue function and structure.</p

On the theory of tumor self-seeding: implications for metastasis progression in humans

Metastasis remains the leading cause of death among cancer patients because few effective treatment options are available. A recent paper proposes a new twist on metastasis. The paper shows that circulating tumor cells can return to the primary tumor, a process termed tumor self-seeding or cross-seeding, and that this helps breeding tumor cells that give rise to aggressive metastatic variants. A viewpoint presented here addresses the implications of these studies for human cancer metastasis

Inhibition of Proliferation by PERK Regulates Mammary Acinar Morphogenesis and Tumor Formation

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signaling can be mediated by the ER kinase PERK, which phosphorylates its substrate eIF2α. This in turn, results in translational repression and the activation of downstream programs that can limit cell growth through cell cycle arrest and/or apoptosis. These responses can also be initiated by perturbations in cell adhesion. Thus, we hypothesized that adhesion-dependent regulation of PERK signaling might determine cell fate. We tested this hypothesis in a model of mammary acini development, a morphogenetic process regulated in part by adhesion signaling. Here we report a novel role for PERK in limiting MCF10A mammary epithelial cell proliferation during acinar morphogenesis in 3D Matrigel culture as well as in preventing mammary tumor formation in vivo. We show that loss of adhesion to a suitable substratum induces PERK-dependent phosphorylation of eIF2α and selective upregulation of ATF4 and GADD153. Further, inhibition of endogenous PERK signaling during acinar morphogenesis, using two dominant-negative PERK mutants (PERK-ΔC or PERK-K618A), does not affect apoptosis but results instead in hyper-proliferative and enlarged lumen-filled acini, devoid of proper architecture. This phenotype correlated with an adhesion-dependent increase in translation initiation, Ki67 staining and upregulation of Laminin-5, ErbB1 and ErbB2 expression. More importantly, the MCF10A cells expressing PERKΔC, but not a vector control, were tumorigenic in vivo upon orthotopic implantation in denuded mouse mammary fat pads. Our results reveal that the PERK pathway is responsive to adhesion-regulated signals and that it is essential for proper acinar morphogenesis and in preventing mammary tumor formation. The possibility that deficiencies in PERK signaling could lead to hyperproliferation of the mammary epithelium and increase the likelihood of tumor formation, is of significance to the understanding of breast cancer

Computer Aided Identification of Small Molecules Disrupting uPAR/α5β1- Integrin Interaction: A New Paradigm for Metastasis Prevention

Disseminated dormant cancer cells can resume growth and eventually form overt metastases, but the underlying molecular mechanism responsible for this change remains obscure. We previously established that cell surface interaction between urokinase receptor (uPAR) and alpha5beta1-integrin initiates a sequel of events, involving MAPK-ERK activation that culminates in progressive cancer growth. We also identified the site on uPAR that binds alpha5beta1-integrin. Disruption of uPAR/integrin interaction blocks ERK activation and forces cancer cells into dormancy.Using a target structure guided computation docking we identified 68 compounds from a diversity library of 13,000 small molecules that were predicted to interact with a previously identified integrin-binding site on uPAR. Of these 68 chemical hits, ten inhibited ERK activation in a cellular assay and of those, 2 compounds, 2-(Pyridin-2-ylamino)-quinolin-8-ol and, 2,2'-(methylimino)di (8-quinolinol) inhibited ERK activation by disrupting the uPAR/integrins interaction. These two compounds, when applied in vivo, inhibited ERK activity and tumor growth and blocked metastases of a model head and neck carcinoma.We showed that interaction between two large proteins (uPAR and alpha5beta1-integrin) can be disrupted by a small molecule leading to profound downstream effects. Because this interaction occurs in cells with high uPAR expression, a property almost exclusive to cancer cells, we expect a new therapy based on these lead compounds to be cancer cell specific and minimally toxic. This treatment, rather than killing disseminated metastatic cells, should induce a protracted state of dormancy and prevent overt metastases

Identification of markers that functionally define a quiescent multiple myeloma cell sub-population surviving bortezomib treatment

The mechanisms allowing residual multiple myeloma (MM) cells to persist after bortezomib (Bz) treatment remain unclear. We hypothesized that studying the biology of bortezomib-surviving cells may reveal markers to identify these cells and survival signals to target and kill residual MM cells.We used H2B-GFP label retention, biochemical tools and in vitro and in vivo experiments to characterize growth arrest and the unfolded protein responses in quiescent Bz-surviving cells. We also tested the effect of a demethylating agent, 5-Azacytidine, on Bz-induced quiescence and whether inhibiting the chaperone GRP78/BiP (henceforth GRP78) with a specific toxin induced apoptosis in Bz-surviving cells. Finally, we used MM patient samples to test whether GRP78 levels might associate with disease progression. Statistical analysis employed t-test and Mann-Whitney tests at a 95% confidence.We report that Bz-surviving MM cells in vitro and in vivo enter quiescence characterized by p21(CIP1) upregulation. Bz-surviving MM cells also downregulated CDK6, Ki67 and P-Rb. H2B-GFP label retention showed that Bz-surviving MM cells are either slow-cycling or deeply quiescent. The Bz-induced quiescence was stabilized by low dose (500nM) of 5-azacytidine (Aza) pre-treatment, which also potentiated the initial Bz-induced apoptosis. We also found that expression of GRP78, an unfolded protein response (UPR) survival factor, persisted in MM quiescent cells. Importantly, GRP78 downregulation using a specific SubAB bacterial toxin killed Bz-surviving MM cells. Finally, quantification of Grp78(high)/CD138+ MM cells from patients suggested that high levels correlated with progressive disease.We conclude that Bz-surviving MM cells display a GRP78(HIGH)/p21(HIGH)/CDK6(LOW)/P-Rb(LOW) profile, and these markers may identify quiescent MM cells capable of fueling recurrences. We further conclude that Aza + Bz treatment of MM may represent a novel strategy to delay recurrences by enhancing Bz-induced apoptosis and quiescence stability.Alfred Adomako, Veronica Calvo, Noa Biran, Keren Osman, Ajai Chari, James C Paton, Adrienne W Paton, Kateri Moore, Denis M Schewe, and Julio A Aguirre-Ghis

A human tRNA methyltransferase 9-like protein prevents tumour growth by regulating LIN9 and HIF1-α

Emerging evidence points to aberrant regulation of translation as a driver of cell transformation in cancer. Given the direct control of translation by tRNA modifications, tRNA modifying enzymes may function as regulators of cancer progression. Here, we show that a tRNA methyltransferase 9‐like (hTRM9L/KIAA1456) mRNA is down‐regulated in breast, bladder, colorectal, cervix and testicular carcinomas. In the aggressive SW620 and HCT116 colon carcinoma cell lines, hTRM9L is silenced and its re‐expression and methyltransferase activity dramatically suppressed tumour growth in vivo. This growth inhibition was linked to decreased proliferation, senescence‐like G0/G1‐arrest and up‐regulation of the RB interacting protein LIN9. Additionally, SW620 cells re‐expressing hTRM9L did not respond to hypoxia via HIF1‐α‐dependent induction of GLUT1. Importantly, hTRM9L‐negative tumours were highly sensitive to aminoglycoside antibiotics and this was associated with altered tRNA modification levels compared to antibiotic resistant hTRM9L‐expressing SW620 cells. Our study links hTRM9L and tRNA modifications to inhibition of tumour growth via LIN9 and HIF1‐α‐dependent mechanisms. It also suggests that aminoglycoside antibiotics may be useful to treat hTRM9L‐deficient tumours.National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01 ES015037)National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01 ES017010)National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R21 ES017146)National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30 ES002109)National Cancer Institute (U.S.) (R01 CA109182)National Cancer Institute (U.S.) (U54 CA163131)National Science Foundation (U.S.) (NSF 0922830)NYSTARWestaway Research FundSingapore-MIT Alliance for Research and TechnologySamuel Waxman Cancer Research Foundation Tumour Dormancy ProgramNYSTE

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (2nd edition)

In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardiz- ing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new tech- nologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in differ- ent organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes..

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 activity is not required in mammalian cells during late G2 for timely entry into or exit from mitosis

Author Posting. © American Society for Cell Biology, 2006. This article is posted here by permission of American Society for Cell Biology for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Molecular Biology of the Cell 17 (2006): 5227-5240, doi:10.1091/mbc.E06-04-0284.Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 activity is reported to be required in mammalian cells for timely entry into and exit from mitosis (i.e., the G2-mitosis [G2/M] and metaphase-anaphase [M/A] transitions). However, it is unclear whether this involvement reflects a direct requirement for ERK1/2 activity during these transitions or for activating gene transcription programs at earlier stages of the cell cycle. To examine these possibilities, we followed live cells in which ERK1/2 activity was inhibited through late G2 and mitosis. We find that acute inhibition of ERK1/2 during late G2 and through mitosis does not affect the timing of the G2/M or M/A transitions in normal or transformed human cells, nor does it impede spindle assembly, inactivate the p38 stress-activated checkpoint during late G2 or the spindle assembly checkpoint during mitosis. Using CENP-F as a marker for progress through G2, we also show that sustained inhibition of ERK1/2 transiently delays the cell cycle in early/mid-G2 via a p53-dependent mechanism. Together, our data reveal that ERK1/2 activity is required in early G2 for a timely entry into mitosis but that it does not directly regulate cell cycle progression from late G2 through mitosis in normal or transformed mammalian cells.This research was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant GMS-40198 to C.L.R., by National Institutes of Health/National Cancer Institute Grant CA109182, and Samuel Waxman Cancer Research Foundation grants to J.A.A.-G

Downregulation of urokinase plasminogen activator receptor expression inhibits Erk signalling with concomitant suppression of invasiveness due to loss of uPAR–β1 integrin complex in colon cancer cells

Cancer invasion is regulated by cell surface proteinases and adhesion molecules. Interaction between specific cell surface molecules such as urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) and integrins is crucial for tumour invasion and metastasis. In this study, we examined whether uPAR and beta1 integrin form a functional complex to mediate signalling required for tumour invasion. We assessed the expression of uPAR/beta1 integrin complex, Erk signalling pathway, adhesion, uPA and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression, migration/invasion and matrix degradation in a colon cancer cell line in which uPAR expression was modified. Antisense inhibition of the cell surface expression of uPAR by 50% in human colon carcinoma HCT116 cells (A/S) suppressed Erk-MAP kinase activity by two-fold. Urokinase plasminogen activator receptor antisense treatment of HCT116 cells was associated with a 1.3-fold inhibition of adhesion, approximately four-fold suppression of HMW-uPA secretion and inhibition of pro-MMP-9 secretion. At a functional level, uPAR antisense resulted in a four-fold decline in migration/invasion and abatement of plasmin-mediated matrix degradation. In empty vector-transfected cells (mock), uPA strongly elevated basal Erk activation. In contrast, in A/S cells, uPA induction of Erk activation was not observed. Urokinase plasminogen activator receptor associated with beta1 integrin in mock-transfected cells. Disruption of uPAR-beta1 integrin complex in mock-transfected cells with a specific peptide (P25) inhibited uPA-mediated Erk-MAP kinase pathway and inhibited migration/invasion and plasmin-dependent matrix degradation through suppression of pro-MMP-9/MMP-2 expression. This novel paradigm of uPAR-integrin signalling may afford opportunities for alternative therapeutic strategies for the treatment of cancer

HPV16 E7-Dependent Transformation Activates NHE1 through a PKA-RhoA-Iinduced Inhibition of p38alpha

Background: Neoplastic transformation originates from a large number of different genetic alterations. Despite this genetic variability, a common phenotype to transformed cells is cellular alkalinization. We have previously shown in human keratinocytes and a cell line in which transformation can be turned on and followed by the inducible expression of the E7 oncogene of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16), that intracellular alkalinization is an early and essential physiological event driven by the up-regulation of the Na/H-+(+) exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) and is necessary for the development of other transformed phenotypes and the in vivo tumor formation in nude mice.Methodology: Here, we utilize these model systems to elucidate the dynamic sequence of alterations of the upstream signal transduction systems leading to the transformation-dependent activation of NHE1.Principal Findings: We observe that a down-regulation of p38 MAPK activity is a fundamental step in the ability of the oncogene to transform the cell. Further, using pharmacological agents and transient transfections with dominant interfering, constitutively active, phosphorylation negative mutants and siRNA strategy to modify specific upstream signal transduction components that link HPV16 E7 oncogenic signals to up-regulation of the NHE1, we demonstrate that the stimulation of NHE1 activity is driven by an early rise in cellular cAMP resulting in the down-stream inhibition of p38 MAPK via the PKA-dependent phosphorylation of the small G-protein, RhoA, and its subsequent inhibition.Conclusions: All together these data significantly improve our knowledge concerning the basic cellular alterations involved in oncogene-driven neoplastic transformation