Environmental life cycle implications of upscaling lithium-ion battery production

Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) literature evaluating environmental burdens from lithium-ion battery (LIB) production facilitieslacks an understanding of how environmental burdens have changed over time due to a transition to large-scale production. Thepurpose of this study is hence to examine the effect of upscaling LIB production using unique life cycle inventory data representativeof large-scale production. A sub-goal of the study is to examine how changes in background datasets affect environmental impacts.Method We remodel an often-cited study on small-scale battery production by Ellingsen et al. (2014), representative ofoperations in 2010, and couple it to updated Ecoinvent background data. Additionally, we use new inventory data to modelLIB cell production in a large-scale facility representative of the latest technology in LIB production. The cell manufacturedin the small-scale facility is an NMC-1:1:1 (nickel-manganese-cobalt) pouch cell, whereas in the large-scale facility, the cellproduced in an NMC-8:1:1 cylindrical cell. We model production in varying carbon intensity scenarios using recycled andexclusively primary materials as input options. We assess environmental pollution–related impacts using ReCiPe midpointindicators and resource use impacts using the surplus ore method (ReCiPe) and the crustal scarcity indicator.Results and discussion Remodelling of the small-scale factory using updated background data showed a 34% increase ingreenhouse gas emissions — linked to updated cobalt sulfate production data. Upscaling production reduced emissions bynearly 45% in the reference scenario (South Korean energy mix) due to a reduced energy demand in cell production. However,the emissions reduce by a further 55% if the energy is sourced from a low-carbon intensity source (Swedish energymix), shifting almost all burden to upstream supply chain. Regional pollution impacts such as acidification and eutrophicationshow similar trends. Toxic emissions also reduce, but unlike other impacts, they were already occurring during miningand ore processing. Lastly, nickel, cobalt, and lithium use contribute considerably to resource impacts. From a long-termperspective, copper becomes important from a resource scarcity perspective.Conclusions Upscaling LIB production shifts environmental burdens to upstream material extraction and production, irrespectiveof the carbon intensity of the energy source. Thus, a key message for the industry and policy makers is that furtherreductions in the climate impacts from LIB production are possible, only when the upstream LIB supply chain uses renewableenergy source. An additional message to LCA practitioners is to examine the effect of changing background systemswhen evaluating maturing technologies

LiSET: A framework for early-stage life cycle screening of emerging technologies

While life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool often used to evaluate the environmental impacts of products and technologies, the amount of data required to perform such studies make the evaluation of emerging technologies using the conventional LCA approach challenging. The development paradox is such that the inputs from a comprehensive environmental assessment has the greatest effect early in the development phase, and yet the data required to perform such an assessment are generally lacking until it is too late. Previous attempts to formalize strategies for performing streamlined or screening LCAs were made in the late 1990s and early 2000s, mostly to rapidly compare the environmental performance of product design candidates. These strategies lack the transparency and consistency required for the environmental screening of large numbers of early‐development candidates, for which data are even sparser. We propose the Lifecycle Screening of Emerging Technologies method (LiSET). LiSET is an adaptable screening‐to‐LCA method that uses the available data to systematically and transparently evaluate the environmental performance of technologies at low readiness levels. Iterations follow technological development and allow a progression to a full LCA if desired. In early iterations, LiSET presents results in a matrix structure combined with a “traffic light” color grading system. This format inherently communicates the high uncertainty of analysis at this stage and presents numerous environmental aspects assessed. LiSET takes advantage of a decomposition analysis and data not traditionally used in LCAs to gain insight to the life cycle impacts and ensure that the most environmentally sustainable technologies are adopted

Nanotechnology for environmentally sustainable electromobility

Electric vehicles (EVs) powered by lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) or proton exchange membrane hydrogen fuel cells (PEMFCs) offer important potential climate change mitigation effects when combined with clean energy sources. The development of novel nanomaterials may bring about the next wave of technical improvements for LIBs and PEMFCs. If the next generation of EVs is to lead to not only reduced emissions during use but also environmentally sustainable production chains, the research on nanomaterials for LIBs and PEMFCs should be guided by a life-cycle perspective. In this Analysis, we describe an environmental life-cycle screening framework tailored to assess nanomaterials for electromobility. By applying this framework, we offer an early evaluation of the most promising nanomaterials for LIBs and PEMFCs and their potential contributions to the environmental sustainability of EV life cycles. Potential environmental trade-offs and gaps in nanomaterials research are identified to provide guidance for future nanomaterial developments for electromobility

The size and range effect: lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles

The primary goal of this study is to investigate the effect of increasing battery size and driving range to the environmental impact of electric vehicles (EVs). To this end, we compile cradle-to-grave inventories for EVs in four size segments to determine their climate change potential. A second objective is to compare the lifecycle emissions of EVs to those of conventional vehicles. For this purpose, we collect lifecycle emissions for conventional vehicles reported by automobile manufacturers. The lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions are calculated per vehicle and over a total driving range of 180 000 km using the average European electricity mix. Process-based attributional LCA and the ReCiPe characterisation method are used to estimate the climate change potential from the hierarchical perspective. The differently sized EVs are compared to one another to find the effect of increasing the size and range of EVs. We also point out the sources of differences in lifecycle emissions between conventional- and electric vehicles. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis assesses the change in lifecycle emissions when electricity with various energy sources power the EVs. The sensitivity analysis also examines how the use phase electricity sources influences the size and range effect

Life-cycle assessment methodology to assess Zero Emission Neighbourhood concept. A novel model

Buildings represent a critical piece of a low-carbon future and their long lifetime necessitates urgent adoption of state-of-the-art performance standards to avoid significant lock-in risk. So far, life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies have assessed buildings (conventional and Zero Emission Building (ZEB)), mobility and energy systems mainly individually. Yet, these elements are closely linked, and to assess the nexus of housing, mobility, and energy associated with human settlements by aiming for Zero Emission Neighborhoods (ZENs) gives a unique chance to contribute to climate change mitigation. ZEBs and ZENs are likely to be critical components in a future climate change mitigation policy. This study addresses the challenge of how to use LCA when implementing such a policy, in line also with the introduction of the more stringent Energy Performance of Buildings Directive in 2010 that requires new buildings to be built with nearly ZEB standards by the end of 2020. The specific aims of this report are fourfold. First, to develop and apply an LCA model to support the evaluation of ZEN design concepts with respect to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other potential environmental impacts. Second, to clarify important contributing factors as well as revealing criticalities and sensitivities for GHG emission reductions and environmental performance of such ZEN design concepts. Third, to establish a model basis for other LCA studies on a neighbourhood scale, in terms of a high-quality modelling approach regarding consistency, transparency, and flexibility. Fourth, to apply our model on two cases; a hypothetical case of a neighbourhood consisting of single family house of passive house standard and on Zero Emission Village Bergen (ZVB). For the first case, the neighbourhood consists of single-family houses built according to the Norwegian passive house standard. We designed four scenarios where we tested the impact of the house sizes, household size, energy used and produced in the buildings, and mobility patterns. Also, we ran our scenarios with different levels of decarbonization of the electricity mix over a time period of 60 years. …publishedVersio

Identifying key assumptions and differences in life cycle assessment studies of lithium-ion traction batteries with focus on greenhouse gas emissions

The various studies that consider the life cycle environmental impacts of lithium-ion traction batteries report widely different results. This article evaluates the inventory data and results to identify the key assumptions and differences in the studies. To aid the identification, we compile the reported life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of batteries. The studies find production-related emissions in the range of 38-356 kg CO2-eq/kWh. One of the main sources of the large variations stems from differing assumptions regarding direct energy demand associated with cell manufacture and pack assembly. Further differences are due to assumptions regarding the amount of cell materials and other battery components. The indirect emissions associated with the use phase depend on the conversion losses in the battery, the energy required to transport the weight of the battery, and the carbon intensity of the electricity. Of the reviewed studies assessing the use phase, all estimate energy use associated with conversion losses while only one considers the mass-induced energy requirement. Although there are several industrial end-of- life treatment alternatives for lithium-ion batteries, very few studies consider this life cycle stage. Studies using the “recycled content” approach report emissions in the range of 3.6-27 kg CO2-eq/kWh battery, while studies using the “end-of-life" approach report emission reductions in the range of 16-32 kg CO2- eq/kWh battery. The uncertainty associated with the end-of-life results is high as the data availability on industrial process is limited. Based on our findings, we discuss how the life emissions of lithium-ion traction batteries may be reduced

Life-cycle assessment methodology to assess Zero Emission Neighbourhood concept. A novel model

Buildings represent a critical piece of a low-carbon future and their long lifetime necessitates urgent adoption of state-of-the-art performance standards to avoid significant lock-in risk. So far, life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies have assessed buildings (conventional and Zero Emission Building (ZEB)), mobility and energy systems mainly individually. Yet, these elements are closely linked, and to assess the nexus of housing, mobility, and energy associated with human settlements by aiming for Zero Emission Neighborhoods (ZENs) gives a unique chance to contribute to climate change mitigation. ZEBs and ZENs are likely to be critical components in a future climate change mitigation policy. This study addresses the challenge of how to use LCA when implementing such a policy, in line also with the introduction of the more stringent Energy Performance of Buildings Directive in 2010 that requires new buildings to be built with nearly ZEB standards by the end of 2020. The specific aims of this report are fourfold. First, to develop and apply an LCA model to support the evaluation of ZEN design concepts with respect to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other potential environmental impacts. Second, to clarify important contributing factors as well as revealing criticalities and sensitivities for GHG emission reductions and environmental performance of such ZEN design concepts. Third, to establish a model basis for other LCA studies on a neighbourhood scale, in terms of a high-quality modelling approach regarding consistency, transparency, and flexibility. Fourth, to apply our model on two cases; a hypothetical case of a neighbourhood consisting of single family house of passive house standard and on Zero Emission Village Bergen (ZVB). For the first case, the neighbourhood consists of single-family houses built according to the Norwegian passive house standard. We designed four scenarios where we tested the impact of the house sizes, household size, energy used and produced in the buildings, and mobility patterns. Also, we ran our scenarios with different levels of decarbonization of the electricity mix over a time period of 60 years.

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of a Novel Al-Ion and a Li-Ion Battery for Stationary Applications

The foreseen high penetration of fluctuant renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, will cause an increased need for batteries to store the energy produced and not instantaneously consumed. Due to the high production cost and significant environmental impacts associated with the production of lithium-ion nickel-manganese-cobalt (Li-ion NMC) batteries, several chemistries are proposed as a potential substitute. This study aims to identify and compare the lifecycle environmental impacts springing from a novel Al-ion battery, with the current state-of-the-art chemistry, i.e., Li-ion NMC. The global warming potential (GWP) indicator was selected to express the results due to its relevance to society, policy and to facilitate the comparison of our results with other research. The cradle-to-grave process-based assessment uses two functional units: (1) per-cell manufactured and (2) per-Wh of storage capacity. The results identified the battery’s production as the highest carbon intensity phase, being the energy usage the main contributor to GWP. In general, the materials and process involved in the manufacturing and recycling of the novel battery achieve a lower environmental impact in comparison to the Li-ion technology. However, due to the Al-ion’s low energy density, a higher amount of materials are needed to deliver equivalent performance than a Li-ion

Life cycle assessment of battery electric buses

Different Li-ion battery technologies and sizes are used in battery electric buses (BEBs), but little is known about the environmental effect of various battery technology and sizing alternatives. In a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of seven BEBs, we consider three battery technologies combined with relevant pack sizes to evaluate the size and range effect. The environmental performance of the BEBs was assessed over the typical length of a bus tender of 10 years as well as an extended lifetime of 20 years. Across six environmental impact categories we found that the size and range effect depends to a large extent on the performance of the battery technology and that a smaller battery size of the same technology is not necessarily environmentally preferable. Furthermore, extending the BEB lifetime from 10 to 20 years changes the environmental performance as well as relative contributions to environmental impact potentials for the various BEB alternatives