Ethnobotanical survey of plants used for the treatment of constipation within Nkonkobe Municipality of South Africa

Constipation is the commonest gastrointestinal complaint in most developed and poor countries including  South Africa. An ethnobotanical survey of plants used by herbalists, traditional healers and rural dwellers for the treatment of constipation was conducted in the Nkonkobe Municipality, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study revealed 10 plant species belonging to eight families, namely; Asphodelaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Amaryllidaceae, Sapindaceae, Dioscoreaceae Polygonaceae and Longaniaceae. Out of these, the member of Asphodelaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Amaryllidaceae were the most commonly used. The use of decoction of leaves and roots are the most preferred methods of herbal preparation. In all cases, the treatment involved oral administration of the extracts 2 to 3 times per day, for a short period of time, but usually not more than two weeks, or as soon as the condition disappears. Aloe ferox, Boophane disticha, Alepidea amatymbica and Artemisia afra were repeatedly mentioned by the traditional healers as the most widely used for the treatment of constipation in the study area. There was a general belief in the efficacy of the extracts either prepared as infusion, decoction or poultice.Key words: Medicinal plants, herbalist, traditional healer, constipation

Extracts from Aloe ferox and Withania somnifera inhibit Candida albicans and Neisseria gonorrhoea

Herbal medicines play a vital role in the treatment of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), especially in the remote areas of South Africa where clinics and hospitals are sparsely located. Aloe ferox andWithania somnifera are among the southern African plants commonly used for the treatment of (STIs). This paper reports on the in vitro antimicrobial activities of water and methanol extracts from the two plants on Neisseria gonorrhoea and Candida albicans, common causes of STIs in rural South Africa. Extracts from both species together with pure aloin from A. ferox, were evaluated for activity against six strains of N. gonorrhoea and nine strains of C. albicans. The extracts showed activity against N. gonorrhoea at concentrations of ranging from 0.5 (methanol extracts from both) to 10 (water extract of W. somnifera only) mg/ml while pure aloin inhibited the growth of both microorganisms. Only the methanol extract of W. somnifera was effective against C. albicans at a concentration of 20 mg/ml

Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants used for the treatment of tuberculosis in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Artemisia afra Jacq. Ex Willd., Carpobrotus edulis L. and Tulbaghia violacea Harv. were screened for activity against Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium aurum A+ strain using a two-fold microdilution bioassay. M. aurum is tuberculosis (TB)related strain that was used in this study. These plants were selected based on their use by South African traditional healers for the treatment of TB and symptoms of the disease. All three plants were extracted with water, ethanol and dichloromethane. The extracts of A. afra were found to be activeagainst all the tested microorganisms. Only in the instance of A. afra and C. edulis did water extract show activity against M. aurum A+ strain. The ethanol extract of C. edulis showed very good activity against the Gram-positive bacteria only. Dichloromethane extracts of T. violacea were found to behighly active against all the microorganisms, except for K. pneumoniae

In vitro Synergy and Time-kill Assessment of Interaction between Kanamycin and Metronidazole against Resistant Bacteria

Purpose: To evaluate the in vitro effects of combining kanamycin and metronidazole against resistant bacteria.Methods: The influence of combining kanamycin and metronidazole against Gram-positive and  Gramnegative bacteria was assessed by agar diffusion,  checkerboard and time-kill assays.Results: The test isolates were highly resistant, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging between 15.63 and >250 μg/ml for kanamycin, and 15.63 and 125 μg/ml for metronidazole. The antibacterial combinations resulted in drastic decrease in MIC with increased antibacterial activity that indicated synergistic interaction against all the bacteria except Acinetobacter calcaoceuticus UP, Enterobacter cloacae ATCC 13047 and Shigella flexneri KZN. Fractional inhibitory  concentration index (FICI) showed synergy ranging from 0.31 to 0.50, additive interaction with FICI ranging from 0.53 to 1.25 and absence of antagonistic  interaction. Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Bacillus cereus ATCC 10702, Enterobacter cloacae ATCC 13047, Klebsiella  pneumoniae ATCC 10031, Acinetobacter calcoaceuticus UP and Micrococcus luteus were totally eliminated by the antibacterial combinations within 24 h of  incubation. The lack of antagonism between these antibacterial agents in checkerboard and time-kill assays suggest that kanamycin may be effective in both monotherapy and combination therapy.Conclusion: The study indicates the potential beneficial value of combining kanamycin and metronidazole in the treatment of microbial infections in clinical settings.Keywords: Drug-drug interactions, Synergy, Time-kill, Fractional inhibitory concentration index, Kanamycin, Metronidazole, Microbial resistanc

Antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activity of the roots and leaves of Pelargonium reniforme Curtis (Geraniaceae)

Pathogens such as bacteria and fungi and oxidative stress induce the progression of alcoholic liver disease. The antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of extracts from the roots and leaves of Pelargoniumreniforme Curtis (Geraniaceae) were assessed in an effort to validate the traditional use of the plant in the treatment of liver diseases. Methanol, acetone and water extracts of the plant were investigated forantimicrobial activity against ten bacterial and five fungal species using the dilution method on solid agar medium. With the exception of Streptococcus faecalis, the extracts showed significant activity against all the gram-positive and three of the gram-negative bacteria tested in this study. Although not completely fungicidal, these extracts showed significant growth inhibition against all the fungi tested. The concentrations of the different classes of phenolic compounds were higher in the methanol extracts when compared with the water extracts. Antioxidant activities of the methanol and water extracts as assessed by three established in vitro methods, namely, 2,2´-azinobis-(3-methylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric ion reducing power showed that the extract possessed strong scavenging activity and moderate reducingpower. Results obtained in this study show that P. reniforme has good antimicrobial and antioxidant activity and this validates its traditional use in the treatment of liver diseases. Also, a comparative studyof the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of both the leaves and root showed that both parts had similar activity. The choice of the root by the traditional healers over the leaves may be arbitrary or due to easy collection. The leaves of P. reniforme may, as well, substitute for its roots in medicinal formulations

Phytochemical constituents and antioxidant properties of acetone extract of Cleome gynandra (L.) growing in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.

Background: Several wild vegetables have been reported for their therapeutic benefits in South Africa. Many of these plants including Cleome gynandra (L.) lack scientific reports on its significance in folkloric medicine. Therefore, this study was undertaken to evaluate quantitatively the compositions of phytochemicals and antioxidant properties of acetone extract of different parts of C. gynandra.Materials and Method: Antioxidant activities were assessed against ferric reducing power, ABTS (2, 2’- azino-bis-3-ethyl benzothiazoline-6- sulfonic acid) diammonium salt, DPPH (1, 1- diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) and NO (nitric oxide) radical scavenging activities. Total phenolics, flavonoids, flavanols, proanthocyanidins, tannins, saponins and alkaloids were also investigated.Results: Amongst the different plant parts, the leaf extract had the highest concentration of total phenolics (126.79 ± 0.55 mg/g), flavonoids (40.58 ± 0.06 mg/g) and flavanols (42.41 ± 0.05 mg/g) while the stem extract had the highest amount of proanthocyanidins (419.01 ± 0.67 mg/g) compared to the leaves (403.29 ± 0.89 mg/g) and fruits (107.18 ± 0.59 mg/g). The reducing power of the extracts was significantly higher than that of the standard drugs used in a concentration dependent manner. The activities of the plant extracts against ABTS, DPPH and NO radicals were dose responsive with IC50 value of 0.2, 0.1 and 0.03 mg/g respectively.Conclusion: C. gynandra possesses high secondary metabolites which accounts for its strong antioxidant ability thus justifying its use as natural occurring antioxidants in folkloric medicine. The study encourages a regular consumption of this wild vegetable in order to avert oxidative stress related diseases.Key words: Cleome gynandra, natural antioxidant, polyphenolics, antioxidant activity, phytochemical constituents

Antimicrobial activity of Solanum tomentosum

Acetone, methanol and water extracts from the leaves of Solanum tomentosum were investigated for their antimicrobial activities. Growth inhibition was determined using agar dilution assays against ten selected bacterial and three fungal species. Acetone and methanol extracts were active against the Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria at a concentration of 5 mg/ml. None of the extracts inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonae and Penicillium notatum. The activities of the extracts on the test fungi were generally low. Methanol extracts was particularly suppressive to the growth of fungi with inhibitory percentage ranging from 47.22 to 50.56% on Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum.Keywords: Solanum tomentosum, Solanaceae, antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifunga

In vitro time kill assessment of crude methanol extract of Helichrysum pedunculatum leaves

The in vitro antibacterial activities and time kill regimes of crude methanol extract of Helichrysum pedunculatum was assessed using standard microbiological procedures. The experiment wasconducted against a panel of bacterial species made up of clinical, environmental and reference strains. The extract was active against eleven of the twenty-one bacteria tested at a concentration of 10 mg/ml. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values for all the susceptible bacteria ranged between 0.1 – 5.0mg/ml. The average log reduction in viable cell count in time kill assay ranged between 0.17 Log10 to 6.37 Log10 cfu/ml after 6 h of interaction, and between 0.14 Log10 and 6.99 Log10 cfu/ml after 12 h interaction in 1×MIC and 2×MIC of the extract. The extract was bactericidal against 8 of the test bacteria at 1×MIC and against 9 of the test bacteria at 2×MIC from 12 h interaction period. At both MIC levels, the extract was bactericidal to all the reference strains and four of the six environmental strains at both MIC levels after 12 h of interaction. Also the extract was bactericidal to four of the six environmental strains at both MIC levels after 12 h of interaction and bacteriostatic during the first 6 h of interaction. Inhibitory levels of crude methanol extract of H. pedunculatum could be bacteriostatic or bactericidal independentof Gram’s characteristic

A review of the phytochemistry, botany, pharmacology and toxicology of Arctotis arctotoides

Background: Arctotis arctotoides (Asteraceae) is commonly used by the rural people of Eastern Cape for the treatment of epilepsy, indigestion, catarrh and stomach ache. The leaf paste or juice is applied topically in the treatment of wounds and skin disorders. Unfortunately, no previous reviews are available for this important medicinal plant. Hence, the aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Arctotis arctotoides.Methodology: This review was carried out using a comprehensive and systematic literature search on the following databases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct and Scopus. Searches were undertaken using the key word “Arctotis arctotoides” and the six synonyms of Arctotis arctotoides identified in the Plant List.Results: In the first phyto-chemical study of Arctotis arctotoides, the authors reported that sesquiterpenoids presence was predominant in the root oil whereas, the essential oils of the leaves, flowers and stems had both monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids. The literature survey revealed that Arctotis arctotoides has been investigated in four pharmacological areas, including anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-cancer and anti-oxidant activities. Three toxicity screens for the crude extracts of A. arctotoides on cell lines, rats and brine shrimp were identified in the literature.Conclusion: Detailed studies on the bioactivity of the crude extracts and the isolated phyto-chemicals have provided partial evidence as regards the traditional use of A. arctotoides in the treatment of wounds in Eastern Cape of South Africa. However, in order to fully exploit the medicinal potential of A. arctotoides, the expansion of existing traditional knowledge into neighboring communities where the plant is not currently in use for the stated indications will support a greater use of the plant in primary healthcare.Key words: Arctotis arctotoides, botany, phyto-chemistry, pharmacology and toxicologyList of abbreviations: ABTS: 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid; BHT: Butylated hydroxytoluene; DPPH: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl ; FRAP: Ferric reducing ability of plasma; MIC: Minimum inhibitory concentration; MTT: 3-(4,5-dimethythiazol-. 2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; RPMI 1640 medium: Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium; SEM: Scanning electron microscope; TLC: Thin layerchromatography

Phytochemical and antioxidant investigations of a Clausena anisata hook, a South African medicinal plant

Background: Clausena anisata (Willd). Hook (Rutaceae), also known as Iperepesi in Xhosa language is a medicinal plant widely used by herbalists for the treatment and/or management of several ailments such as chronic cough, tuberculosis and lung ulceration in Eastern Cape, South Africa. With reference to the information gathered in our previous study, we investigated the plant’s phyto-constituents, as well as its inhibitory effects using aqueous and two different organic solvent of extractions in order to justify its folkloric usage.Methods: Antioxidant activity of the plant was screened through 1,1- diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6- sulfonic acid) (ABTS) diammonium salt, nitric oxide (NO), and ferric reducing power. Total phenols, flavonoids, flavonols, proanthocyanidins, tannins, alkaloids and saponins were investigated using spectroscopic techniques.Results: There were no significant differences in the flavonoid and proanthocyanidins contents between the leaves and bark extracts of C.  anisata respectively, while the total phenolic content of the bark extract of C. anisata was significantly higher than that of the C. anisata leaf. The acetone extracts of both the leaf and bark indicated strong antioxidant activities.Conclusion: The observed activities of the plant extracts could be attributed to the high contents of the phenolics, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, proanthocyanidins and tannin. The acetone extracts of the plants have also exhibited strong antioxidant activities in vitro. It has been established scientifically that oxidative stress is linked with several degenerative conditions and diseases; the inhibitory effects of these plant extracts on the free radicals could logically justify the folkloric usage of C. anisata leaf and bark in the Eastern Cape for the treatment of respiratory infection diseases.Key words: Antioxidants, Clausena anisata phytochemical contents, solvent extraction antiradica