Early Life Soy Exposure and Child Development: An Assessment of Language Acquisition, Play Behavior, and Time-to-Menarche

Soy isoflavones are weak estrogenic compounds contained in products derived from soybeans, including soy-based infant formula. Exposure to these compounds in infancy may have lasting effects on later neurological and reproductive development and function. This study examined the association between early life soy-based feeding and developmental outcomes, including language acquisition, gender-role play behavior and time-to-menarche. Subjects were participants in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Subjects were classified into mutually exclusive infant feeding categories: early soy, late soy, primarily breast, and early formula (referent). Language acquisition, measured as word comprehension and production, was assessed using the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (MCDI) at 15 and 24 months of age. Gender-role play behavior was assessed using the Preschool Activities Inventory (PSAI) at 42 months of age. Time-to-menarche was assessed by self-report of age at menarche between ages 8 and 14. Using generalized estimating equations (n = 3,384 boys; 3,176 girls), a small, imprecise increase in both word comprehension and word production was observed in girls with early soy exposure (βcomprehension = 0.87, 95% CI: 0.36, 1.38; βproduction = 1.46, 95% CI: 0.56, 2.29) over time, as compared to the referent. No association was observed among boys. Likewise, no association between PSAI score and infant feeding method was observed in boys, using multivariable linear regression models. However, the mean PSAI score among early soy exposed girls was slightly higher than the referent (β = 2.68, 95% CI: 0.20, 5.15), indicating slightly masculinized behavior. Time-to-menarche was assessed in 2,884 girls using Cox proportional hazards modeling. The rate of menarche in early adolescence (before age 12.5) increased by 42% in the early soy fed girls (Hazard Ratio: 1.42, 95% CI: 0.92, 2.20). There was no association in later adolescence. In this study, early life exposure to soy products was associated with slight, imprecise associations with developmental outcomes in girls, but not boys. Interpretation was limited by a small number of early soy exposed subjects. Despite the imprecision, similar patterns of association among girls in all outcomes support the need for additional studies to replicate these novel findings

Deep East Texas Grave Markers: Types, Styles, and Motifs

Grave markers are often the only physical evidence of a person’s existence and offer opportunities for even ordinary people to ‘speak’ from the grave. Sometimes the deceased selects the marker or leaves instructions for its composition. In modern times, the grieving family typically chooses the type, style, motif, and inscription according to commercial availability, aesthetic appeal, and budgetary constraints. A cemetery visitor will likely have no idea of the actual circumstances that caused a particular marker to have its shape, design, and decorative elements. Like other possessions, markers are subject to fashion trends and since the advent of mass production and laser techniques, markers once unique for their individual carving may now be distinctive because modern technology permits extensive customization. This booklet seeks to provide the reader with an overview of the most frequently encountered marker types (shapes), styles, and motifs in Deep East Texas. Photographs are entirely from East Texas cemeteries, and thus may omit markers common in other areas

Deep East Texas Grave Markers: Types, Styles, and Motifs

Grave markers are often the only physical evidence of a person’s existence and offer opportunities for even ordinary people to ‘speak’ from the grave. Sometimes the deceased selects the marker or leaves instructions for its composition. In modern times, the grieving family typically chooses the type, style, motif, and inscription according to commercial availability, aesthetic appeal, and budgetary constraints. A cemetery visitor will likely have no idea of the actual circumstances that caused a particular marker to have its shape, design, and decorative elements. Like other possessions, markers are subject to fashion trends and since the advent of mass production and laser techniques, markers once unique for their individual carving may now be distinctive because modern technology permits extensive customization. This booklet seeks to provide the reader with an overview of the most frequently encountered marker types (shapes), styles, and motifs in Deep East Texas. Photographs are entirely from East Texas cemeteries, and thus may omit markers common in other areas

Deep East Texas Grave Markers: Types, Styles, and Motifs

Grave markers are often the only physical evidence of a person’s existence and offer opportunities for even ordinary people to ‘speak’ from the grave. Sometimes the deceased selects the marker or leaves instructions for its composition. In modern times, the grieving family typically chooses the type, style, motif, and inscription according to commercial availability, aesthetic appeal, and budgetary constraints. A cemetery visitor will likely have no idea of the actual circumstances that caused a particular marker to have its shape, design, and decorative elements. Like other possessions, markers are subject to fashion trends and since the advent of mass production and laser techniques, markers once unique for their individual carving may now be distinctive because modern technology permits extensive customization. This booklet seeks to provide the reader with an overview of the most frequently encountered marker types (shapes), styles, and motifs in Deep East Texas. Photographs are entirely from East Texas cemeteries, and thus may omit markers common in other areas

Deep East Texas Grave Markers: Types, Styles, and Motifs

Grave markers are often the only physical evidence of a person’s existence and offer opportunities for even ordinary people to ‘speak’ from the grave. Sometimes the deceased selects the marker or leaves instructions for its composition. In modern times, the grieving family typically chooses the type, style, motif, and inscription according to commercial availability, aesthetic appeal, and budgetary constraints. A cemetery visitor will likely have no idea of the actual circumstances that caused a particular marker to have its shape, design, and decorative elements. Like other possessions, markers are subject to fashion trends and since the advent of mass production and laser techniques, markers once unique for their individual carving may now be distinctive because modern technology permits extensive customization. This booklet seeks to provide the reader with an overview of the most frequently encountered marker types (shapes), styles, and motifs in Deep East Texas. Photographs are entirely from East Texas cemeteries, and thus may omit markers common in other areas

Early-Life Soy Exposure and Gender-Role Play Behavior in Children

Background: Soy-based infant formula contains high levels of isoflavones. These estrogen-like compounds have been shown to induce changes in sexually dimorphic behaviors in animals exposed in early development

Environmental factors, epigenetics, and developmental origin of reproductive disorders

Sex-specific differentiation, development, and function of the reproductive system are largely dependent on steroid hormones. For this reason, developmental exposure to estrogenic and anti-androgenic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is associated with reproductive dysfunction in adulthood. Human data in support of “Developmental Origins of Health and Disease” (DOHaD) comes from multigenerational studies on offspring of diethylstilbestrol-exposed mothers/grandmothers. Animal data indicate that ovarian reserve, female cycling, adult uterine abnormalities, sperm quality, prostate disease, and mating behavior are susceptible to DOHaD effects induced by EDCs such as bisphenol A, genistein, diethylstilbestrol, p,p′-dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene, phthalates, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Mechanisms underlying these EDC effects include direct mimicry of sex steroids or morphogens and interference with epigenomic sculpting during cell and tissue differentiation. Exposure to EDCs is associated with abnormal DNA methylation and other epigenetic modifications, as well as altered expression of genes important for development and function of reproductive tissues. Here we review the literature exploring the connections between developmental exposure to EDCs and adult reproductive dysfunction, and the mechanisms underlying these effects

Lactational Exposure to Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Its Relation to Social and Emotional Development among Toddlers

Background: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been widely used as flame retardants and are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. PBDEs have been linked to adverse neurodevelopment in animals and humans

Brominated Flame Retardants in Breast Milk and Behavioral and Cognitive Development at 36 Months

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are persistent flame retardants found in the environment, in household dust, and in humans. Breast feeding is a prominent route of exposure in infancy. PBDEs adversely affect neurodevelopment in animals. Here, we estimate associations between PBDEs in breast milk and behavior and cognitive skills in children at 36 months of age

Early-life soy exposure and age at menarche

This study examines the timing of menarche in relation to infant-feeding methods, specifically addressing the potential effects of soy isoflavone exposure through soy-based infant feeding. Subjects were participants in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Mothers were enrolled during pregnancy and their children have been followed prospectively. Early-life feeding regimes, categorised as primarily breast, early formula, early soy and late soy, were defined using infant-feeding questionnaires administered during infancy. For this analysis, age at menarche was assessed using questionnaires administered approximately annually between ages 8 and 14.5. Eligible subjects were limited to term, singleton, White females. We used Kaplan-Meier survival curves and Cox proportional hazards models to assess age at menarche and risk of menarche over the study period. The present analysis included 2920 girls. Approximately 2% of mothers reported that soy products were introduced into the infant diet at or before 4 months of age (early soy). The median age at menarche [interquartile range (IQR)] in the study sample was 153 months [144-163], approximately 12.8 years. The median age at menarche among early soy-fed girls was 149 months (12.4 years) [IQR, 140-159]. Compared with girls fed non-soy-based infant formula or milk (early formula), early soy-fed girls were at 25% higher risk of menarche throughout the course of follow-up (hazard ratio 1.25 [95% confidence interval 0.92, 1.71]). Our results also suggest that girls fed soy products in early infancy may have an increased risk of menarche specifically in early adolescence. These findings may be the observable manifestation of mild endocrine-disrupting effects of soy isoflavone exposure. However, our study is limited by few soy-exposed subjects and is not designed to assess biological mechanisms. Because soy formula use is common in some populations, this subtle association with menarche warrants more in-depth evaluation in future studies