Dermatophytes activate skin keratinocytes via mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling and induce immune responses

Dermatophytes cause superficial and cutaneous fungal infections in immunocompetent hosts and invasive disease in immunocompromised hosts. However, the host mechanisms that regulate innate immune responses against these fungi are largely unknown. Here, we utilized commercially available epidermal tissues and primary keratinocytes to assess (i) damage induction by anthropophilic, geophilic, and zoophilic dermatophyte strains and (ii) the keratinocyte signaling pathways, transcription factors, and proinflammatory responses induced by a representative dermatophyte, Trichophyton equinum. Initially, five dermatophyte species were tested for their ability to invade, cause tissue damage, and induce cytokines, with Microsporum gypseum inducing the greatest level of damage and cytokine release. Using T. equinum as a representative dermatophyte, we found that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were predominantly affected, with increased levels of phospho-p38 and phospho-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK) but decreased levels of phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). Notably, the NF-κB and PI3K pathways were largely unaffected. T. equinum also significantly increased expression of the AP-1-associated transcription factor, c-Fos, and the MAPK regulatory phosphatase, MKP1. Importantly, the ability of T. equinum to invade, cause tissue damage, activate signaling and transcription factors, and induce proinflammatory responses correlated with germination, indicating that germination may be important for dermatophyte virulence and host immune activation

Valuation and Crediting Approaches for Transportation and Metropolitan Planning Agencies

Ecosystem services measurement and crediting tools are recognized as important to the transportation planning and project implementation process because they can aid the process of mitigating environmental impacts by reducing transaction costs, improving environmental outcomes, and shortening the time needed to implement projects. Because of this, they have been identified as a key step in the Eco-Logical framework integrating transportation and conservation planning, characterized by a SHRP2 Capacity Program Study as the Integrated Ecological Framework (IEF). Currently, there is not a straightforward methodology for creating a transportation-centric crediting program available throughout much of the US. However, successful programs in California, North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington have all developed approaches cooperatively with the regulatory agencies, state and non-governmental conservation programs, those actively involved in mitigation banking, and agencies or organizations funding restoration activities. An overview of crediting systems and valuation methods and their use at various scales in transportation planning are presented. Current projects and programs are evaluated to identify opportunities and obstacles transportation organizations may encounter when attempting to implement a crediting program

Creating and Consuming Web 2.0 in Art Education

Web 2.0 has the potential to dramatically affect educational practices in a variety of ways. Within the field of art education, students and teachers can utilize Web 2.0 to further student understanding and art-making. The potential for students to create the Web is an aspect of Web 2.0 that is particularly well suited for an art classroom. Through examples from teachers and from the author’s own practice, this article details potential uses of delicious, flickr, blogs, podcasts, and wiki. Through these technologies, students may collaboratively build knowledge, develop a deeper understanding of their own artworks and those of other artists, and interact with artworks in new ways