An Ultrasonographic Study of Musculoskeletal Injuries and Mammary Gland Tumour in Small Animals

With advances in ultrasound technology and the development of high resolution transducers, imaging of the musculoskeletal system and its pathology has become possible. The present study was carried out to assess the value of diagnostic ultrasonography using a high frequency transducer (7.5 MHz) in musculoskeletal injuries of small animals. In addition, an attempt was made to document the value of high resolution ultrasonographic imaging on canine mammary gland tumours and their ultrasonographic characteristics. Live animals used in this study were gathered from two main places in the Glasgow area: the clinical cases referred to the Glasgow University Small Animal Clinics (GUSAC) for fracture repair and wound healing studies and the cases referred to the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA) for canine mammary tumour study. Canine cadavers collected from the Glasgow area were used for normal muscle imaging and a preliminary study of abdominal wounds. A B-mode realtime ultrasound scanner (Capasee, TOSHIBA) with a 7.5 MHz linear array transducer was used through out the study. The images were recorded during each examination for review at a later date. Skeletal muscles of normal greyhound cadavers imaged ultrasonographically appeared as a homogenously hypoechoic structure with fine echoes scattered throughout the muscle parenchyma. Each muscle group could be identified, separated by a thin hyperechoic structure which was actually the connective tissue fascia. Bone appeared as a strong hyperechoic image with complete acoustic shadowing distally when the transducer was correctly inclined. Normal ventral abdominal musculature (VAM) imaged ultrasonographically appeared isoechoic relative to the muscle tissue. The VAM with the presence of new incision site revealed a disorganised area with ill defined margins which was hypoechoic relative to the surrounding tissues. The VAM with the presence of an old incision site varied from hypoechoic to hyperechoic. The majority of the cadavers examined (17) fell into this group. Most of the VAM with an old incision site appeared as an ill-defined disorganised hyperechoic area relative to the surrounding tissues. Fluid accumulation within the subcutaneous tissue could be detected within 24 hours post-operation appearing anechoic to hypoechoic with acoustic shadowing artefact depending on the content of the fluid. The formation of fibrous tissue at the surgical site could be seen ultrasonographically and appeared as an hypoechoic structure with acoustic shadowing artefact in the early stages, and later with time it appeared as an ill-defined hypoechoic area with an echogenic centre and casting an acoustic shadowing artefact. When the fibrous tissue matured the surgical site appeared as a disorganised hyperechoic area with acoustic shadowing artefact. A fracture site imaged longitudinally with ultrasound appeared as a discontinuity of the smooth bone surface. Soft callus formation could be detected and appeared as a disorganised hyperechoic structure with no artefact produced. However, it was not apparent radiographically. The repair process of bone fractures could be successfully monitored with ultrasound without any risk of exposure to radiation of the animal. Furthermore, complications of fracture repair could be detected at an early stage with ultrasound and the result was immediate. Haematoma formation at the fracture site could be demonstrated within 24 hours after operation and its resolution could be successfully monitored. The ultrasonographic appearance of canine mammary tumour tissue was divided into three groups: group one was represented by small areas of tumour tissue which appeared anechoic to hypoechoic: group two was represented by areas of tumour tissue appearing as areas of mixed echotexture; group three was represented by large areas of tumour tissue which were large and appeared hyperechoic, sometimes with the presence of cystic structures. Acoustic enhancement artefact was the most prominent feature for all groups of tumour masses. The normal axillary and superficial inguinal lymph nodes appeared as round hypoechoic to isoechoic structures relative to surrounding soft tissues. The enlarged abnormal regional lymph nodes varied in echogenicity from homogeneous hypoechoic structures through a mixed echotexture to a more echogenic echotexture relative to surrounding soft tissues. Ultrasonography would appear to offer potential to become a routine procedure in mammary tumour tissue detection in small animals in the future

Morphological and meat quality of breast muscle of wild red jungle fowl and Malaysian indigenous chicken

The aims of this study were to define the morphological structure, to evaluate the collagen distribution and to determine the meat quality traits of breast muscle in wild Red Jungle fowl and Malaysian indigenous chickens. The Red Jungle fowl is the ancestor of the domestic fowl. The Malaysian indigenous or Gallus gallus Domesticus, commonly known as village chicken are crossbreed of the RJF with mixed exotic domestic breeds. Seven samples of breast muscle (Pectoralis major) from adult RJF (n=7) and Malaysian indigenous chickens (n=7) were used in this study. The wild RJF were captured from the secondary forests in Peninsular Malaysia, while the Malaysian indigenous chicken were collected from Jenderam Hilir, Sepang, Selangor. The parameters of meat quality evaluated were moisture and ash content, crude protein and fatty acids profile, pH and colour measurement, percentage of cooking loss and shear force value. For the morphological characteristics, the mean diameter of muscle fiber, cross-sectional area of muscle bundle and total number of muscle fiber were evaluated. The results revealed there were significant (p<0.05) differences in the morphology and collagen distribution of the breast muscle between the wild RJF and Malaysian indigenous chickens. The muscle bundles area and diameter of muscle fibers of Malaysian indigenous chickens were larger compared to those of the wild RJF. However, the total number of muscle fibers was less in Malaysian indigenous chickens as compared to wild RJF. The findings for the meat quality traits revealed wild RJF had higher protein and ash content, low shear force value and higher pH value than the Malaysian indigenous chickens. Thus, based on the findings of this study, the RJF fowl had better meat quality than the Malaysia indigenous chickens

Embryo implantation: Shedding light on the roles of ovarian hormones, cytokines and growth factors in the implantation process

Implantation is a crucial step in mammalian reproduction, as it is a gateway to further embryonic  development and successful pregnancy. Successful implantation requires coordinated interactions between the blastocyst and uterus. Uterine receptivity for embryo implantation is regulated by the ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone. Some cytokines and growth factors play important roles in embryo implantation under the influence of ovarian hormones. Such molecules are involved in embryo-maternal interactions during the implantation process. This review describes the implantation process and highlights the potential roles of some cytokines and growth factors (such as leukemia inhibitory factor, interleukin-1, interleukin-6, interleukin-11, colony stimulating factor-1, epidermal growth factor family and insulin-like growth factor system) in the implantation process. Knowledge of the function of these molecules during implantation may help to address the reason of implantation failure and infertility.Key words: Implantation, estrogen, progesterone, cytokines, growth factors

Ultrasonographic imaging on the progress of wound healing after abdominal surgery in dogs

The present study has been carried out with the aim of evaluating the progress of abdominal wound healing after abdominal surgery and to detect any changes that might occur during the reparative phase using B-mode ultrasound. Five dogs of different breeds, sex and age were used in this study. The dogs had undergone ventral abdominal surgery for various reasons. A real-time B-mode ultrasound machine (Capasee TOSHIBA) connected with a 7.5 MHz linear array transducer was used in this study. The ultrasonographic examination was done transversely across the ventral abdominal midline (wound) from cranial to caudal and longitudinal scan was done along the wound (incision site) from cranial to caudal. Initial scanning was carried out on day one (approximately 24 hours) post-operation. Subsequent scans were carried out on the basis of one day apart while the animal was still in the hospital. The ultrasonographic appearance of wound (surgical site) at the early stage was ill-defined hypoechoic with acoustic shadowing artefact. With time the wound appeared hypoechoic with some degree of an echogenic centre and casting acoustic shadowing artefact. By day 11 post-operation, the wound was found to have a disorganized echogenic structure with acoustic shadowing artefact. By day 13 post-operation, the wound appeared as disorganized hyperechoic with acoustic shadowing artefact due to the presence of fibrous tissue formation. Results from this study also demonstrate that the wound could be evaluated in both transverse and longitudinal scans. However, the transverse scan seems to be easier than the longitudinal scan in evaluation of the surgical wound

Muscle fibre typing, collagen composition analysis of breast and thigh meats in two breeds of chicken of different growth performance

The present study was done to evaluate the type of muscle fibre composition in thigh and breast muscle of Red Jungle fowl and Ross. It was also to evaluate the collagen composition in thigh and breast muscle of Red Jungle fowl and Ross. The histological appearance and size of the muscle fibres of Red Jungle fowl and Ross were evaluated. Four wild adult Red Jungle fowl and four market adult Ross chicken were used in this study. Breast muscle (pectoral) and thigh muscle (gastrocnemius) were examined. Three stains were used in this study and there were Myosin ATPase stain, Masson Trichrome stain and Haematoxylin and Eosin stain. Myosin ATPase stain was used to evaluate the muscle fibres type composition, Masson Trichrome stain was used to evaluate the collagen content of the muscle and Haematoxylin and Eosin stain was used to evaluate the histological appearance and size of the muscle fibres. Histologically, the thigh muscle of the Red Jungle fowl has higher proportion of muscle fibres type I to type II than Ross. There were no difference in proportion of muscle fibres type I to type II of breast muscle in Red Jungle fowl and Ross. The thigh and breast muscle of Red Jungle fowl has high collagen content while Ross chicken’s thigh and breast muscle has less collagen content. The size of muscle fibre of Red Jungle fowl was small while that of Ross was big

Applicability of virtopsy in veterinary practice: a short review

Virtopsy is a new and rapidly evolving non-invasive autopsy procedure involving the use of modern imagingmodalities. It basically consists of three-dimensional body surface scanning by photogrammetry, multi-slicecomputed tomography (MSCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for analysis and recording of autopsylesions to ascertain cause and manner of death. This technique has been shown to be as effective and accurateas a conventional autopsy in the recent forensic studies. The MSCT is the most frequently used image modalityfor fractures, pathological gas formation and trauma, while the MRI is a good tool for soft tissue pathology. Itis hoped that virtopsy will replace or serve as an indispensable adjunct to conventional autopsies in the future.Nonetheless, there is currently a paucity of information on the use of virtopsy in veterinary necropsy practicein which it could be used as a research tool and also possibly replace common procedures. The term 'virtopsy'in this article refers to the use of high throughput imaging techniques in human or animals as it may warrant.This review would look at the history, applications, prospects and limitations of virtopsy in veterinary necropsy

Morphology of lymphoid nodules and aggregates in the lungs of calves at different ages

The present study was conducted with the aim of defining the morphology of lymphoid nodules and lymphoid aggregates in calves at different ages. A total of 9 calves, divided into 3 age groups (3-, 6- and 8-month-old) consisting of 3 calves in each group, was used in this study. Samples of the lungs were taken systematically and processed for histological examinations. The tissues were sectioned at 4, μm, stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin and examined under light microscope. The occurrence and structure of lymphoid nodules and lymphoid aggregates varied between the age groups. The number of lymphoid nodules and lymphoid aggregates in the lung of calves increased with age. The number of lymphoid nodules and lymphoid aggregates in the 8-month-old calves was significantly higher (P<0.05) than in the 3- and 6-month-old calves. Similarly, the size of lymphoid nodule and lymphoid aggregates increased with age and was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the 8-month-old calves as compared to the 3- and 6- month-old calves. The number of intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) within the lymphoid nodules and lymphoid aggregates was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the 8-month-old calves compared to the 3- and 6-month-old calves

Ultrastructural evaluation of bronchial lymphoid aggregates and lymphoid nodules in calves at different ages

This study was conducted with the aim of defining the ultrastructure of bronchial lymphoid aggregates and lymphoid nodules of the bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) in 3-, 6- and 8-month-old calves. A total of 9 calves divided into 3 age groups of 3 calves in each group was used in this study. Samples of the lungs were taken systematically and processed for scanning electron microscopic (SEM) and transmission electron microscopic (TEM) examinations. The results revealed differences between the epithelium of lymphoid aggregates and lymphoid nodules. SEM showed the absence of cilia over the lymphoid nodules but not over aggregates. Flattened, non-ciliated epithelial cells which may be precursors of the M cells were found in lymphoepithelium (LPE) of 3-month-old calves over nodules. The non-ciliated epithelial cells over nodules in 6- and 8-month-old calves were columnar in bronchi, but in bronchioles they were cuboidal. However, in the 3-month-old calves, some were columnar and some flattened in bronchi and in bronchiole, they were cuboidal. Transmission electron microscopic examination showed the presence of two types of M cells found in the LPE. Type 2 M cells were found in 3- and 6-month-old calves while type I M cells predominated in the bronchi in 6- and 8-monthold calves. This work represents the first systematic investigation of the similarities and differences in the ultrastructure of lymphoid aggregates and lymphoid nodules in calves and changes therein as a function of age

Anatomical structures of the limb of white-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) and white-headed munia (Lonchura maja)

This study was conducted with the aim to examine the anatomical structures of the limb of white-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) to determine the reason why the birds are not able to walk, stand and perch while standing. In addition, an attempt was made to compare the results with the white-headed munia (Lonchura maja), which has similar body weight and appearance. Four left limbs from each species were examined macroscopically using stereomicroscope. The bone and muscles of both species were measured and compared. The limb muscles of white-nest swiftlet were twice smaller than the white-headed munia. The tibial bone was approximately similar in length, but the tarsometatarsal bone of the white-nest swiftlet was shorter than the white-headed munia. The digits of the white-nest swiftlet were also shorter than the white-headed munia. The tibial bones for both species were taken for histological examination and the results revealed no significance difference between the two species. Four groups of muscles namely the biceps femoris, semimembranous, semitendinosus and gastrocnemius from each bird were also taken for histological examination. The muscle sections were stained with H&E and Masson’s Trichome. Histologically, the white-nest swiftlet had smaller sized limb muscles compared to the white-headed munia. Similarly, the muscle bundles of the white-nest swiftlet were also less than the white-headed munia. In conclusion, the short tarsometatarsal bone and digits, and small limb muscles could be the reason why the white-nest swiftlets are not able to use their limbs for walking, standing and perching

Evaluation of bone marrow-seeded porous scaffolds at post-intramuscular implantation in a rat model

Improvements to current therapeutic strategies are needed for the treatment of skeletal defects. Bone tissue engineering offers potential advantages to these strategies. One of the approaches in the development of bone graft substitutes is through use of scaffolds. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ectopic bone formation of the bone marrow-seeded porous scaffold. Local cockle shell, Anadara granosa was used as material for scaffold. Eighteen rats were divided into 3 equal groups. Three different scaffolds were prepared for each group. Each rat was implanted with 2 scaffolds; the bone marrow-seeded scaffold was implanted into right gastrocnemius muscle whereas the non-seeded scaffold implanted at the contralateral side. Serum alkaline phosphatase and calcium concentrations were determined before and 3 weeks after implantation. Radiograph examination was done every week. At the end of week 3, all rats were sacrificed for histological evaluation. The radiographic examination and serum assays revealed that the scaffold can induce osteogenesis without exerting harmful effect to the body. Histological examination showed presence of new bone formation and blood vessels in bone marrow-seeded scaffold. Therefore, the bone marrow-seeded scaffold has characteristics of osteoconductive, osteoinductive, biodegradable and biocompatible properties