Tumorigenic proteins upregulated in the MYCN-amplified IMR-32 human neuroblastoma cells promote proliferation and migration.

Childhood neuroblastoma is one of the most common types of extra-cranial cancer affecting children with a clinical spectrum ranging from spontaneous regression to malignant and fatal progression. In order to improve the clinical outcomes of children with high-risk neuroblastoma, it is crucial to understand the tumorigenic mechanisms that govern its malignant behaviors. MYCN proto-oncogene, bHLH transcription factor (MYCN) amplification has been implicated in the malignant, treatment-evasive nature of aggressive, high-risk neuroblastoma. In this study, we used a SILAC approach to compare the proteomic signatures of MYCN-amplified IMR-32 and non-MYCN-amplified SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cells. Tumorigenic proteins, including fatty-acid binding protein 5 (FABP5), L1-cell adhesion molecule (L1-CAM), baculoviral IAP repeat containing 5 [BIRC5 (survivin)] and high mobility group protein A1 (HMGA1) were found to be significantly upregulated in the IMR-32 compared to the SK-N-SH cells and mapped to highly tumorigenic pathways including, MYC, MYCN, microtubule associated protein Tau (MAPT), E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1), sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1 or 2 (SREBF1/2), hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), Sp1 transcription factor (SP1) and amyloid precursor protein (APP). The transcriptional knockdown (KD) of MYCN, HMGA1, FABP5 and L1-CAM significantly abrogated the proliferation of the IMR-32 cells at 48 h post transfection. The early apoptotic rates were significantly higher in the IMR-32 cells in which FABP5 and MYCN were knocked down, whereas cellular migration was significantly abrogated with FABP5 and HMGA1 KD compared to the controls. Of note, L1-CAM, HMGA1 and FABP5 KD concomitantly downregulated MYCN protein expression and MYCN KD concomitantly downregulated L1-CAM, HMGA1 and FABP5 protein expression, while survivin protein expression was significantly downregulated by MYCN, HMGA1 and FABP5 KD. In addition, combined L1-CAM and FABP5 KD led to the concomitant downregulation of HMGA1 protein expression. On the whole, our data indicate that this inter-play between MYCN and the highly tumorigenic proteins which are upregulated in the malignant IMR-32 cells may be fueling their aggressive behavior, thereby signifying the importance of combination, multi-modality targeted therapy to eradicate this deadly childhood cancer

Cancer Stem Cells in Neuroblastoma: Expanding the Therapeutic Frontier

Neuroblastoma (NB) is the most common extracranial solid tumor often diagnosed in childhood. Despite intense efforts to develop a successful treatment, current available therapies are still challenged by high rates of resistance, recurrence and progression, most notably in advanced cases and highly malignant tumors. Emerging evidence proposes that this might be due to a subpopulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) or tumor-initiating cells (TICs) found in the bulk of the tumor. Therefore, the development of more targeted therapy is highly dependent on the identification of the molecular signatures and genetic aberrations characteristic to this subpopulation of cells. This review aims at providing an overview of the key molecular players involved in NB CSCs and focuses on the experimental evidence from NB cell lines, patient-derived xenografts and primary tumors. It also provides some novel approaches of targeting multiple drivers governing the stemness of CSCs to achieve better anti-tumor effects than the currently used therapeutic agents

Epigenetic developmental mechanisms underlying sex differences in cancer

Cancer risk is modulated by hereditary and somatic mutations, exposures, age, sex, and gender. The mechanisms by which sex and gender work alone and in combination with other cancer risk factors remain underexplored. In general, cancers that occur in both the male and female sexes occur more commonly in XY compared with XX individuals, regardless of genetic ancestry, geographic location, and age. Moreover, XY individuals are less frequently cured of their cancers, highlighting the need for a greater understanding of sex and gender effects in oncology. This will be necessary for optimal laboratory and clinical cancer investigations. To that end, we review the epigenetics of sexual differentiation and its effect on cancer hallmark pathways throughout life. Specifically, we will touch on how sex differences in metabolism, immunity, pluripotency, and tumor suppressor functions are patterned through the epigenetic effects of imprinting, sex chromosome complement, X inactivation, genes escaping X inactivation, sex hormones, and life history

Gonadal sex patterns p21-induced cellular senescence in mouse and human glioblastoma

Males exhibit higher incidence and worse prognosis for the majority of cancers, including glioblastoma (GBM). Disparate survival may be related to sex-biased responses to treatment, including radiation. Using a mouse model of GBM, we show that female cells are more sensitive to radiation, and that senescence represents a major component of the radiation therapeutic response in both sexes. Correlation analyses revealed that the CDK inhibitor p21 and irradiation induced senescence were differentially regulated between male and female cells. Indeed, female cellular senescence was more sensitive to changes in p21 levels, a finding that was observed in wildtype and transformed murine astrocytes, as well as patient-derived GBM cell lines. Using a novel Four Core Genotypes model of GBM, we further show that sex differences in p21-induced senescence are patterned during early development by gonadal sex. These data provide a rationale for the further study of sex differences in radiation response and how senescence might be enhanced for radiation sensitization. The determination that p21 and gonadal sex are required for sex differences in radiation response will serve as a foundation for these future mechanistic studies

Molecular and functional analysis of anchorage independent, treatment-evasive neuroblastoma tumorspheres with enhanced malignant properties: A possible explanation for radio-therapy resistance

Despite significant advances in cancer treatment and management, more than 60% of patients with neuroblastoma present with very poor prognosis in the form of metastatic and aggressive disease. Solid tumors including neuroblastoma are thought to be heterogeneous with a sub-population of stem-like cells that are treatment-evasive with highly malignant characteristics. We previously identified a phenomenon of reversible adaptive plasticity (RAP) between anchorage dependent (AD) cells and anchorage independent (AI) tumorspheres in neuroblastoma cell cultures. To expand our molecular characterization of the AI tumorspheres, we sought to define the comprehensive proteomic profile of murine AD and AI neuroblastoma cells. The proteomic profiles of the two phenotypic cell populations were compared to each other to determine the differential protein expression and molecular pathways of interest. We report exclusive or significant up-regulation of tumorigenic pathways expressed by the AI tumorspheres compared to the AD cancer cells. These pathways govern metastatic potential, enhanced malignancy and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Furthermore, radio-therapy induced significant up-regulation of specific tumorigenic and proliferative proteins, namely survivin, CDC2 and the enzyme Poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase 1. Bio-functional characteristics of the AI tumorspheres were resistant to sutent inhibition of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) as well as to 2.5 Gy radio-therapy as assessed by cell survival, proliferation, apoptosis and migration. Interestingly, PDGF-BB stimulation of the PDGFRβ led to transactivation of EGFR and VEGFR in AI tumorspheres more potently than in AD cells. Sutent inhibition of PDGFRβ abrogated this transactivation in both cell types. In addition, 48 h sutent treatment significantly down-regulated the protein expression of PDGFRβ, MYCN, SOX2 and Survivin in the AI tumorspheres and inhibited tumorsphere self-renewal. Radio-sensitivity in AI tumorspheres was enhanced when sutent treatment was combined with survivin knock-down. We conclude that AI tumorspheres have a differential protein expression compared to AD cancer cells that contribute to their malignant phenotype and radio-resistance. Specific targeting of both cellular phenotypes is needed to improve outcomes in neuroblastoma patients

AI tumorspheres exhibit resistance to radio-therapy compared to AD cancer cells.

<p>(A) AD cells (black bars) had a significantly (*<i>P < 0</i>.<i>05</i>) higher rate of apoptosis 2 days after a single dose (2.5 Gy) of radiation compared to AI tumorspheres (white bars) as assessed using 7AAD/Annexin V staining. (B) AD cells had a more potent reduction (81% to 38%) in the proliferation marker Ki-67 expression than AI tumorspheres (72% to 52%) at 72 h post radiation compared to control cells. The average ratio of Ki-67% irradiated/control cells in the AI tumorspheres was 0.75 whereas that of the AD cells was 0.45, as derived from the mean of 4 independent experiments run in triplicates and presented ±SEM of multiple experiments. (C) AI tumorspheres (left side) exhibited a higher number of viable cells over 96 h post radiation compared to AD cells (right side) as determined by counting viable (non-trypan blue stained) and non-viable (trypan blue stained) cells, used in support of the XTT cell proliferation assay. (D) The average ratio of irradiated/control neuroblastoma AD cells (black bars) and that of AI tumorspheres (white bars) was derived from the absorbance of 4 independent experiments run in triplicates and graphed. The ratio was significantly different (*<i>P < 0</i>.<i>05</i>) between the AD cells and AI tumorspheres at 48, 72 and 96 h post radio-therapy(2.5 Gy) indicating the radio-resistant nature of the AI tumorspheres compared to the AD cells. (E) AD cells exhibit increased cell death after radio-therapy compared to AI tumorspheres as shown in the photographic representation of the AI tumorspheres and AD Cells 72 h post radio-therapy revealing more dead cells and cellular debris in the AD cells compared to the AI tumorspheres. * indicates a <i>P value < 0</i>.<i>05</i>. Results represent the mean ± SEM of multiple experiments.</p

Small molecule inhibition of the PDGFRβ using sutent significantly increases cell death and inhibits cell proliferation and migration in AD cells.

<p>(A) NB AI tumorspheres (white bars) exhibited significant resistance to increasing concentrations of sutent treatment compared to un-treated counterparts, as assessed using a cytotoxicity assay after 48 h of treatment, whereas AD cells (black bars) showed a dose-dependent increase in cell death, compared to un-treated counterparts. (B) The average ratio of treated/control absorbance of NB AI tumorspheres and AD cells from four independent experiments run in triplicates was derived and graphed ± SEM. The AI tumorspheres (white bars) were significantly resistant to sutent-induced reduction in cell proliferation compared to their un-treated counterparts over 24, 48, 72 and 96 h post treatment, whereas AD cells (Black bars) showed a marked reduction in cell proliferation after sutent treatment compared to their un-treated counterparts as determined using a WST-1 cell proliferation assay. (C) A “wound-healing” assay was used to assess the PDGF-BB (10 ng) induced cell migration of NB AD cells, treated with sutent for one hour before ‘wound-induction’. Sutent significantly inhibited the AD cells’ ability to migrate into and close the wound after 24 h. (D) A trans-well chemotactic migration chamber was used to measure the PDGF-BB induced cell migration of AD and AI cells that migrated to the underside of the chamber with or without sutent treatment. The average absorbance was represented as a ‘fold-change’ between the groups; unstimulated, untreated cells (Control) were normalized to 1, whereas PDGF-BB induced migration (control + BB) and sutent-induced inhibition of PDGF-BB stimulated migration (sutent + BB) was measured as a fold-change. PDGF-BB stimulation led to a significant (*) increase in AI (white bars) and AD (Grey bars) cell migration compared to their un-stimulated controls. Sutent treatment significantly (#) abrogated (<i>P < 0</i>.<i>05</i>) the PDGF-BB induced AD cells’ (grey bars) ability to migrate to the lower side of the chamber (Fold-change from 1.65 to 1.2), but had only a slight, but not significant (fold-change from 1.75 to 1.65) effect on the trans-well migration capacity of AI tumorspheres (white bars). * indicates a <i>P value < 0</i>.<i>05</i>. Results represent the mean ± SEM of multiple experiments.</p

Long-term sutent treatment in AI tumorspheres inhibits tumorigenic protein expression and tumorsphere self-renewal.

<p>AI tumorspheres were treated with 0.2 μM sutent for 48 h and then lysed for Western blot analysis. A) Western blot images of representative experiments illustrating the reduced expression of PDGFRβ, MYCN, SOX2 and Survivin after 48 h sutent treatment. B) Densitometric analysis of multiple Western blot experiments showing statistically significant reduction in the protein expression of the above mentioned proteins. C) Micro-images of tumorsphere self-renewal capacity over 15-days, inhibited with 0.2 μM sutent treatment. * indicates a <i>P value < 0</i>.<i>05</i>. Results represent the mean ± SEM of multiple experiments.</p

Sutent inhibits the phosphorylation of the PDGFRβ and EGFR/VEGFR trans-activation.

<p>(A) Western blot analysis of AI tumorspheres compared to NB AD cells showed significant phosphorylation (B) of PDGFRβ and the downstream signaling cascade (Akt) after 5 mins stimulation with 10 ng PDGF-BB in AI tumorspheres, which was significantly inhibited after 1 h of 0.2 μM sutent pre-treatment. AD cells were less-affected by PDGF-BB stimulation compared to the AI tumorspheres (A and B). In addition, AD and more potently AI cells stimulated with PDGF-BB for 5 minutes exhibited trans-activation of both EGFR and VEGFR that was abolished with sutent pre-treatment for 1 h (A and B). * indicates a <i>P value < 0</i>.<i>05</i>. Results represent the mean ± SEM of multiple experiments.</p

AI tumorspheres and AD cells exhibit significant up-regulation of survivin, PARP 1 and CDC2 post radiation.

<p>AI tumorspheres or AD cells were either irradiated (+) (2.5 Gy) or left un-treated (-) and cells were lysed after 48 h of irradiation and proteins separated on a SDS-page gel for Western blot analysis. Survivin was significantly up-regulated after irradiation of both AI tumorspheres and AD cells compared to untreated controls. Furthermore, PARP 1 was significantly up-regulated after irradiation of both AI tumorspheres and AD cells compared to untreated controls. In addition, CDC2, a proliferative marker, which was significantly over-expressed by the AD cells compared to the AI tumorspheres, showed significant up-regulation in both AI tumorspheres and AD cells 48 h post irradiation compared to untreated cells. * indicates a <i>P value < 0</i>.<i>05</i>. Results represent the mean ± SEM of multiple experiments.</p