Xanthene Food Dye, as a Modulator of Alzheimer's Disease Amyloid-beta Peptide Aggregation and the Associated Impaired Neuronal Cell Function

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. AD is a degenerative brain disorder that causes problems with memory, thinking and behavior. It has been suggested that aggregation of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) is closely linked to the development of AD pathology. In the search for safe, effective modulators, we evaluated the modulating capabilities of erythrosine B (ER), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved red food dye, on Aβ aggregation and Aβ-associated impaired neuronal cell function.In order to evaluate the modulating ability of ER on Aβ aggregation, we employed transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence assay, and immunoassays using Aβ-specific antibodies. TEM images and ThT fluorescence of Aβ samples indicate that protofibrils are predominantly generated and persist for at least 3 days. The average length of the ER-induced protofibrils is inversely proportional to the concentration of ER above the stoichiometric concentration of Aβ monomers. Immunoassay results using Aβ-specific antibodies suggest that ER binds to the N-terminus of Aβ and inhibits amyloid fibril formation. In order to evaluate Aβ-associated toxicity we determined the reducing activity of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells treated with Aβ aggregates formed in the absence or in the presence of ER. As the concentration of ER increased above the stoichiometric concentration of Aβ, cellular reducing activity increased and Aβ-associated reducing activity loss was negligible at 500 µM ER.Our findings show that ER is a novel modulator of Aβ aggregation and reduces Aβ-associated impaired cell function. Our findings also suggest that xanthene dye can be a new type of small molecule modulator of Aβ aggregation. With demonstrated safety profiles and blood-brain permeability, ER represents a particularly attractive aggregation modulator for amyloidogenic proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases

Ligand binding to distinct states diverts aggregation of an amyloid-forming protein

Although small molecules that modulate amyloid formation in vitro have been identified, significant challenges remain in determining precisely how these species act. Here we describe the identification of rifamycin SV as a potent inhibitor of β(2) microglobulin (β(2)m) fibrillogenesis when added during the lag time of assembly or early during fibril elongation. Biochemical experiments demonstrate that the small molecule does not act by a colloidal mechanism. Exploiting the ability of electrospray ionization-ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (ESI-IMS-MS) to resolve intermediates of amyloid assembly, we show instead that rifamycin SV inhibits β(2)m fibrillation by binding distinct monomeric conformers, disfavoring oligomer formation and diverting the course of assembly to the formation of spherical aggregates. The results demonstrate the power of ESI-IMS-MS to identify specific protein conformers as targets for intervention in fibrillogenesis using small molecules and reveal a mechanism of action in which ligand binding diverts unfolded protein monomers toward alternative assembly pathways

General Amyloid Inhibitors? A Critical Examination of the Inhibition of IAPP Amyloid Formation by Inositol Stereoisomers

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP or amylin) forms amyloid deposits in the islets of Langerhans; a process that is believed to contribute to the progression of type 2 diabetes and to the failure of islet transplants. An emerging theme in amyloid research is the hypothesis that the toxic species produced during amyloid formation by different polypeptides share common features and exert their effects by common mechanisms. If correct, this suggests that inhibitors of amyloid formation by one polypeptide might be effective against other amyloidogenic sequences. IAPP and Aβ, the peptide responsible for amyloid formation in Alzheimer's disease, are particularly interesting in this regard as they are both natively unfolded in their monomeric states and share some common characteristics. Comparatively little effort has been expended on the design of IAPP amyloid inhibitors, thus it is natural to inquire if Aβ inhibitors are effective against IAPP, especially since no IAPP inhibitors have been clinically approved. A range of compounds inhibit Aβ amyloid formation, including various stereoisomers of inositol. Myo-, scyllo-, and epi-inositol have been shown to induce conformational changes in Aβ and prevent Aβ amyloid fibril formation by stabilizing non-fibrillar β-sheet structures. We investigate the ability of inositol stereoisomers to inhibit amyloid formation by IAPP. The compounds do not induce a conformational change in IAPP and are ineffective inhibitors of IAPP amyloid formation, although some do lead to modest apparent changes in IAPP amyloid fibril morphology. Thus not all classes of Aβ inhibitors are effective against IAPP. This work provides a basis of comparison to work on polyphenol based inhibitors of IAPP amyloid formation and helps provide clues as to the features which render them effective. The study also helps provide information for further efforts in rational inhibitor design