Phytochemical and antioxidant investigations of a Clausena anisata hook, a South African medicinal plant

Background: Clausena anisata (Willd). Hook (Rutaceae), also known as Iperepesi in Xhosa language is a medicinal plant widely used by herbalists for the treatment and/or management of several ailments such as chronic cough, tuberculosis and lung ulceration in Eastern Cape, South Africa. With reference to the information gathered in our previous study, we investigated the plant’s phyto-constituents, as well as its inhibitory effects using aqueous and two different organic solvent of extractions in order to justify its folkloric usage.Methods: Antioxidant activity of the plant was screened through 1,1- diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6- sulfonic acid) (ABTS) diammonium salt, nitric oxide (NO), and ferric reducing power. Total phenols, flavonoids, flavonols, proanthocyanidins, tannins, alkaloids and saponins were investigated using spectroscopic techniques.Results: There were no significant differences in the flavonoid and proanthocyanidins contents between the leaves and bark extracts of C.  anisata respectively, while the total phenolic content of the bark extract of C. anisata was significantly higher than that of the C. anisata leaf. The acetone extracts of both the leaf and bark indicated strong antioxidant activities.Conclusion: The observed activities of the plant extracts could be attributed to the high contents of the phenolics, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, proanthocyanidins and tannin. The acetone extracts of the plants have also exhibited strong antioxidant activities in vitro. It has been established scientifically that oxidative stress is linked with several degenerative conditions and diseases; the inhibitory effects of these plant extracts on the free radicals could logically justify the folkloric usage of C. anisata leaf and bark in the Eastern Cape for the treatment of respiratory infection diseases.Key words: Antioxidants, Clausena anisata phytochemical contents, solvent extraction antiradica

Clonal propagation of Pelargonium sidoides: A threatened medicinal plant of South Africa

Pelargonium sidoides is used in herbal medicine for the treatment of various infections. Apart from the local uses, the roots are being indiscriminately harvested for local and export trade. A study was conducted to determine the appropriate plant part and the minimum vine length suitable for the clonal propagation of P. sidoides in two separate experiments. In the first experiment, three vine tip cuttings (2, 4 and 6 cm) of the species were rooted in potted experiment in a green house. In the second experiment, ten days old petioles were excised from their mother plants and rooted along side 6 cm vines length to assess suitable plant part for vegetative propagation of the species. Data were collected and analyzed on various growth and development indices. In the first experiment, the 6 cm vine length exhibited best result for different parameters measured. Petioles gave significant yield difference over 6 cm vine length and generally showed high potential for vegetative propagation in terms of rooting ability and survival rate. The importance of these findings on the propagation and conservation of P. sidoides is discussed.Keywords: Clonal propagation, ex situ conservation, medicinal plant, Pelargonium sidoides, stem cuttin

A review of the phytochemistry, botany, pharmacology and toxicology of Arctotis arctotoides

Background: Arctotis arctotoides (Asteraceae) is commonly used by the rural people of Eastern Cape for the treatment of epilepsy, indigestion, catarrh and stomach ache. The leaf paste or juice is applied topically in the treatment of wounds and skin disorders. Unfortunately, no previous reviews are available for this important medicinal plant. Hence, the aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Arctotis arctotoides.Methodology: This review was carried out using a comprehensive and systematic literature search on the following databases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct and Scopus. Searches were undertaken using the key word “Arctotis arctotoides” and the six synonyms of Arctotis arctotoides identified in the Plant List.Results: In the first phyto-chemical study of Arctotis arctotoides, the authors reported that sesquiterpenoids presence was predominant in the root oil whereas, the essential oils of the leaves, flowers and stems had both monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids. The literature survey revealed that Arctotis arctotoides has been investigated in four pharmacological areas, including anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-cancer and anti-oxidant activities. Three toxicity screens for the crude extracts of A. arctotoides on cell lines, rats and brine shrimp were identified in the literature.Conclusion: Detailed studies on the bioactivity of the crude extracts and the isolated phyto-chemicals have provided partial evidence as regards the traditional use of A. arctotoides in the treatment of wounds in Eastern Cape of South Africa. However, in order to fully exploit the medicinal potential of A. arctotoides, the expansion of existing traditional knowledge into neighboring communities where the plant is not currently in use for the stated indications will support a greater use of the plant in primary healthcare.Key words: Arctotis arctotoides, botany, phyto-chemistry, pharmacology and toxicologyList of abbreviations: ABTS: 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid; BHT: Butylated hydroxytoluene; DPPH: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl ; FRAP: Ferric reducing ability of plasma; MIC: Minimum inhibitory concentration; MTT: 3-(4,5-dimethythiazol-. 2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; RPMI 1640 medium: Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium; SEM: Scanning electron microscope; TLC: Thin layerchromatography

Comparative studies on the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of the aqueous extracts from fresh, dried and boiled berries of Solanum aculeastrum Dunal.

The berry of Solanum aculeastrum Dunal. is used for treating diseases such as rheumatism, gonorrhea, breast cancer and other inflammatory-related ailments in South Africa. The aqueous extracts of the fresh, dried and boiled berries at doses of 1 and 10 mg/kg body weight was evaluated for antiinflammatory and analgesic effects in male Wistar rats using carrageenan-induced paw oedema as well as formalin, acetic acid induced writhing and tail immersion tests. Oral administration of the extractshowed some inhibition of the paw oedema that was not dose dependent. The percentage reduction in inflammation diameter was more prominent in both concentrations of the boiled fresh berries than indomethacin. The extracts at 10 mg/kg prolonged the reaction time in the tail immersion-induced pain 60 min after administration. Although, only the extracts of the boiled dried berries (10 mg/kg) suppressed pain in the formalin test at the late phase, a more pronounced effect of all the extracts in adose-dependent manner was observed in the late phase than the early phase. The results of the acetic acid induced writhing test showed that all the extracts possessed analgesic effect at the tested doses (1 and 10 mg/ml). In conclusion, the extracts of S. aculeastrum berry did not show considerable antiinflammatory and analgesic effects in comparison to indomethacin. This observation in these models might in part be due to the low doses fed to the rats in this experiment

Chemical and nutrient characterization of Solanum pseudocapsicum berries

Solanum pseudocapsicum is a poisonous plant, yet it is used in traditional medicine topically for the treatment of boils and gonorrhoea, and orally as male tonic and for abdominal pain. Chemical analyses of the berries were carried out by GC-MS and photometric procedures. Twenty-five components were identified from the GC-MS spectra, constituting 99.80% of the extract composition. The major components were predominated by alkaloids (38.55%), hydrocarbons (22.18%), fatty acid (19.38%), alcohol (13.27%), and carboxylic acids derivatives (3.73%). The results of the mineral nutrient evaluation showed that the berries contains substantial amount of phosphorous and nitrogen. The majority of the components identified in this plant are known to be poisonous, which explains the toxic nature of theseberries on animals including human beings. The possible exploitation of these components as a source of pharmaceutical and biodegradable industrial raw material is discussed

Toxicological evaluation of the aqueous extract of Felicia muricata Thunb. leaves in Wistar rats

The effect of the aqueous extract of Felicia muricata leaves at 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight in Wistar rats was evaluated for 14 days. The extract caused significant increase in white blood cell (WBC)while it decreased the large unstained cells (LUC). The red blood cell (RBC), packed cell volume (PCV), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), neurophils,eosinophils and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) compared favourably with the control. There was no significant difference in haemoglobin (Hb) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) at both 50 and 100 mg/kg, but at 200 mg/kg, there was slight reduction in both parameters. The extract caused progressive significant increase in platelets concentration. The lymphocytes level was significantly higher at 50 and 100 mg/kg. The extract at all doses did not significantly alter the levels of Na, K, Cl, inorganic phosphorus, urea, creatinine, total bilirubin, globulin, total protein, total cholesterol, high densitylipoprotein-cholesterol (HDCL-C) and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C). The liver- and kidneybody weight ratios were not altered by all the doses except an increase in kidney-body weight ratio by the 200 mg/kg body weight of the extract. The concentration of triacylglycerol was increased by the 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight, while that of alkaline phophatase did not follow any regular pattern. There was reduction in the concentration of aspartate aminotransferase (ALT) from 50 to 200 mg/kg body weight. The alterations on some hematological and liver function parameters were an indication that theextract possessed selective toxicity

An ethnobotanical study of plants used for the treatment of diabetes in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Diabetes mellitus is one of the commonest diseases affecting the citizens of both developed and poor countries. In South Africa, the number of people suffering from diabetes is believed to be rising steadily. An ethnobotanical study of plants used by the traditional healers, herbalists and rural dwellersfor the treatment of diabetes mellitus was conducted in the Eastern Cape Province. The study revealed 14 plant species belonging to six families namely; Asteraceae, Hypoxidaceae, Apocynaceae, Asphodelaceae, Apiaceae and Buddlejaceae. The use of infusions from plant leaves and roots was thecommonest method of herbal preparation. In all cases, the treatment involved drinking the extracts for a long period of time. There was a general belief on the efficacy of the prepared extracts

THE ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF CLAUSENA ANISATA HOOK, A SOUTH AFRICAN MEDICINAL PLANT

Background: Clausena anisata Hook also known as Iperepesi in Xhosa language is a medicinal plant used traditionally for the treatment of various ailments and some opportunistic infections associated with tuberculosis (TB). Patients in South Africa based on the phytotherapeutic information on this species in the Eastern Cape, use this medicinal plant. Hence, the antibacterial activity of various solvent extracts of the leaves and barks were respectively, evaluated using selected bacterial strains. Method: The leaves and stem bark were tested against 10 selected strains of Gram - positive and Gram - negative bacteria through the agar dilution method. Acetone, dichloromethane and water extracts were used for the extraction. MIC was determined at different concentrations (0.1mg/ml, 0.5mg/ml, 1mg/ml and 5mg/ml) and the results obtained were compared to that of standard antibiotics. Result: The acetone extract of the leaves were more active against both Gram-positive and Gram –negative bacteria with MIC ranging from 0.1 mg/ml - 0.5 mg / ml. The dichloromethane extract of the bark showed appreciable activities against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) (MIC: 0.1mg /ml) Escherichia coli and, Streptococcus pyogenes with an MIC of 5mg/ml respectively. On the other hand, the aqueous extract of the leaves showed no activity against the tested organisms with the exception of the aqueous bark extract which inhibited Staphylococcus aureus (MIC: 0.5mg/ml) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC: 5mg/ml). Conclusion: This study confirmed the antibacterial activities of acetone extract of the leaves of Clausena anisata. The capability of this extract to inhibit both Gram positive and negative bacteria is an indication that the extract is a potential broad spectrum antibacterial. The result of this study further justified its indigenous use for the treatment of bacteria commonly associated with TB especially among the people of Nkonkobe Municipality

Potential for tree rings to reveal spatial patterns of past drought variability across western Australia

Proxy records have provided major insights into the variability of past climates over long timescales. However, for much of the Southern Hemisphere, the ability to identify spatial patterns of past climatic variability is constrained by the sparse distribution of proxy records. This is particularly true for mainland Australia, where relatively few proxy records are located. Here, we (1) assess the potential to use existing proxy records in the Australasian region - starting with the only two multi-century tree-ring proxies from mainland Australia - to reveal spatial patterns of past hydroclimatic variability across the western third of the continent, and (2) identify strategic locations to target for the development of new proxy records. We show that the two existing tree-ring records allow robust reconstructions of past hydroclimatic variability over spatially broad areas (i.e. > 3 3) in inland north- and south-western Australia. Our results reveal synchronous periods of drought and wet conditions between the inland northern and southern regions of western Australia as well as a generally anti-phase relationship with hydroclimate in eastern Australia over the last two centuries. The inclusion of 174 tree-ring proxy records from Tasmania, New Zealand and Indonesia and a coral record from Queensland did not improve the reconstruction potential over western Australia. However, our findings suggest that the addition of relatively few new proxy records from key locations in western Australia that currently have low reconstruction skill will enable the development of a comprehensive drought atlas for the region, and provide a critical link to the drought atlases of monsoonal Asia and eastern Australia and New Zealand