Measuring adhesion forces between hydrophilic surfaces with atomic force microscopy using flat tips

A semiconductor wafer is exposed to several processing steps when it is converted from a bare silicon wafer to one populated with millions of transistor circuits. Lithography is one of the most important and critical steps in semiconductor wafer manufacturing. It is directly responsible for shrinking feature sizes to increase transistor densities. However, with further\ud down scaling of the feature size on wafers, the magnitude of adhesive forces becomes a prohibitive factor in further increasing handling speeds and throughput of wafers.\ud \ud This thesis aims at providing a better understanding of the factors that are of prime importance for the magnitude of the adhesion forces between two parallel hydrophilic surfaces as in the wafer stepper machines between the wafer and the wafer table.\ud \ud Atomic Force Microscopy was chosen as the key method in this study due to its ability of sensing the interaction forces between surfaces with force – distance spectroscopy. Different from most adhesion studies in literature flat topped, micron sized silicon tips were used.\ud \ud The individual variables, which could play a role on the magnitude of the adhesion forces, are systematically varied in experiments, while controlling the others in order to arrive at a complete picture of the parameters that affect the adhesion forces. These variables were the surface roughness (that varied with an anisotropic wet chemical etching method), humidity of the environment, the applied load on tip, the residence time of the tip on the substrate, the tip’s retraction speed, and the tip size

Simultaneously opening transmission channels with negative and positive phase velocities for the stacked subwavelength apertures in fishnet metamaterials with hybrid unit lattices

Cataloged from PDF version of article.Hybridization of the unit lattice along the propagation direction was demonstrated to produce a negative-phase-velocity transmission band in the absence of the contributions from the higher diffraction orders for a stacked metallic fishnet grid with subwavelength apertures. This extraordinary transmission band is governed by the stacked resonators. The hybridized unit lattice configurations are not just slight modifications of the configurations with homogenous unit lattices. The volumetric proportions of different dielectric media are a key factor in the partitioned unit lattice for the estimation of the stacking and coupling effects between the resonators. The contribution of the coupling mechanisms enhances the transmission results almost by the same factor for the investigated lattice separations along the propagation direction in hybrid unit cells while the densely stacked resonators yield much higher transmission results, both around the regarding extraordinary transmission band that is associated with the negative phase velocity. A positive-phase-velocity transmission band was also exhibited by the hybridized unit lattice configuration when combined with a cavity resonator. Experimental transmission results of the hybrid configuration supported the theoretical predictions. The hybrid configurations are scalable to the near-infrared regime. (C) 2012 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). [DOI: 10.1117/1.JNP.6.061608

Spatial filtering using dielectric photonic crystals at beam-type excitation

Cataloged from PDF version of article.Spatial filtering is demonstrated at beam-type excitations by utilizing finite thickness slabs of two-dimensional dielectric photonic crystals (PCs) showing exotic Fabry-Perot resonances that are preserved over a wide range of variation of the incidence angle. Bandstop and dual-bandpass filtering effects are illustrated theoretically and the corresponding filters are validated in the microwave experiments by using square-lattice PCs. It is shown that the basic transmission features that were observed earlier for a plane-wave illumination are also recognizable at beam-type excitations. The proposed spatial filtering mechanism exhibits directional beaming. The desired widths and the locations of the passbands and stopbands are attainable in the angle domain with a proper choice of the operating frequency for the given excitation characteristics. c 2010 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3498810

Dispersion irrelevant wideband asymmetric transmission in dielectric photonic crystal gratings

Cataloged from PDF version of article.Wideband suppression of zero order and relevant strongly asymmetric transmission can be obtained in photonic crystal gratings that are made of linear isotropic materials and show the broken structural (axial) symmetry, even if zero diffraction order may be coupled to a Floquet-Bloch (FB) wave at the incidence and exit interfaces. The studied mechanism requires that the peculiar diffractions at the corrugated exit interface inspire strong energy transfer to higher orders, including those not coupled to an FB wave. At the opposite direction of incidence, transmission due to zero and some higher orders that may be coupled at the corrugated input interface can vanish. This leads to the alternative scenario of wideband unidirectional transmission, which itself does not need but can coexist with the other scenario based on the merging of asymmetric diffraction and dispersion of the FB mode. © 2012 Optical Society of America

Experimental demonstration of an analytic method for image reconstruction in optical tomography with large data sets

We report the first experimental test of an analytic image reconstruction algorithm for optical tomography with large data sets. Using a continuous-wave optical tomography system with 10^8 source-detector pairs, we demonstrate the reconstruction of an absorption image of a phantom consisting of a highly-scattering medium with absorbing inhomogeneities.Comment: 3 pages, 3 figure

La cantidad de madera muerta y sus tasas de descomposición asociadas en reservas forestales y bosques manejados en el noroeste de Turquía

This study describes the state of coarse dead wood (CDW) in the Forest Reserve and the Managed Forest zones of northern conifer-broadleaved mixed forest. The results showed mean total CDW volumes in the ranges 30,05±11,06 m3/ha in the Forest Reserve (6,33±2,98% of the LW volume), and 9,31±2,84 m3/ha in the Managed Forest (1,96±0,84% of the LW volume). The total CDW volume was 3,22 times higher in the Forest Reserve than in the Managed Forest. The CDWlog1 and CDWsnag1 were the most abundant CDW decay classes, whilst CDWlog2 and CDWsnag2 were the lowest. Comparisons of ratios between the Managed Forest and the Forest Reserve with abundant decay classes CDWlog1 and CDWsnag1 indicated large differences. The CDWlog1 volume was 4,09 times higher, and the CDWsnag1 volume was 3,68 times greater in the Forest Reserve than in the Managed Forest. The ratio of different CWD classes in the Managed Forest to CWD classes in the Reserve Forest confirms the pattern. In both Managed and Reserve Forest zones there is balance between total CDWlogs and total CDWsnags, but the differences between total CDWlogs and total CDWsnags was not statistically significant. The total CDW volume was significantly dependent on the forest management system. The system influenced amount and diversity of CDW. In commercially managed forest the abundance and structure of CDW retained is a compromise between the needs of timber production and nature conservation.Este estudio describe el estado de la madera muerta en la zona de reserva forestal y zonas de bosques manejados de coníferas del norte de bosques mixtos de frondosas. Los resultados mostraron que la media total de los volúmenes de madera muerta es igual a 30,05 ± 11,06 m3 / ha en la Reserva Forestal (6,33 ± 2,98% del volumen de madera en pie), y 9,31 ± 2,84 m3 / ha en los bosques manejados (1,96 ± 0,84% del volumen de LW). El volumen total de madera muerta fue de 3,22 veces mayor en la Reserva Forestal de que en el bosque administrado. Las clases de decaimiento de madera muerta más abundantes eran CDWlog1 y CDWsnag1, mientras que CDWlog2 y CDWsnag2 fueron los menos abundantes. Las comparaciones de las proporciones entre el bosque manejado y la Reserva Forestal con las clases de decaimiento más abundantes (CDWlog1 y CDWsnag1) indican grandes diferencias ente las dos zonas. El volumen CDWlog1 fue 4,09 veces mayor, y el volumen CDWsnag1 fue 3,68 veces mayor en la Reserva Forestal de que en el bosque manejado. La relación de las diferentes clases de decaimiento entre los bosques manejados y la Reserva Forestal confirma el patrón. En ambos casos, bosque manejado y zonas de reserva forestal, existe un equilibrio entre CDWlogs total y CDWsnags total, pero las diferencias entre CDWlogs total y CDWsnags total no fue estadísticamente significativa. El volumen total de madera muerta depende significativamente del sistema de gestión forestal. El sistema de manejo influye sobre la cantidad y diversidad de madera muerta. En una gestión comercial de los bosques, la abundancia y estructura de madera muerta presente es un compromiso entre las necesidades de la producción de madera y la conservación de la naturaleza

High efficiency of graded index photonic crystal as an input coupler

Cataloged from PDF version of article.A graded index photonic crystal (GRIN PC) configuration was placed at the input side of a photonic crystal waveguide (PCW) in order to efficiently couple the light waves into the waveguide. We compared the transmission efficiencies of light in the absence and presence of the GRIN PC structure. We report a significant improvement in coupling when the GRIN PC is incorporated with the PCW. The intensity profiles were obtained by carrying out the experiments at microwave frequencies. Finite difference time domain based simulations were found to be in good agreement with our experimental results

Chiral metamaterials with negative refractive index based on four "U" split ring resonators

A uniaxial chiral metamaterial is constructed by double-layered four "U" split ring resonators mutually twisted by 90 degrees. It shows a giant optical activity and circular dichroism. The retrieval results reveal that a negative refractive index is realized for circularly polarized waves due to the large chirality. The experimental results are in good agreement with the numerical results.Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures, Published as cover on AP

Frequency dependent steering with backward leaky waves via photonic crystal interface layer

Cataloged from PDF version of article.A Photonic Crystal (PC) with a surface defect layer (made of dimers) is studied in the microwave regime. The dispersion diagram is obtained with the Plane Wave Expansion Method. The dispersion diagram reveals that the dimer-layer supports a surface mode with negative slope. Two facts are noted: First, a guided (bounded) wave is present, propagating along the surface of the dimer-layer. Second, above the light line, the fast traveling mode couple to the propagating spectra and as a result a directive (narrow beam) radiation with backward characteristics is observed and measured. In this leaky mode regime, symmetrical radiation patterns with respect to the normal to the PC surface are attained. Beam steering is observed and measured in a 70 degrees angular range when frequency ranges in the 11.88-13.69GHz interval. Thus, a PC based surface wave structure that acts as a frequency dependent leaky wave antenna is presented. Angular radiation pattern measurements are in agreement with those obtained via numerical simulations that employ the Finite Difference Time Domain Method (FDTD). Finally, the backward radiation characteristics that in turn suggest the existence of a backward leaky mode in the dimer-layer are experimentally verified using a halved dimer-layer structure. (C) 2009 Optical Society of Americ