What are the Key Constraints in Technical Efficiency of Smallholder Farmers in Africa? Empirical Evidence from Kenya

The idea that smallholder farmers are reasonably efficient has triggered much debate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Indeed, efficiency of smallholder farmers has implications for choice of development strategy; reason being that Sub-Saharan countries derive over 60% of their livelihoods from smallholder agriculture and rural economic activities. This paper evaluates factors that promote production efficiency among smallholder farmers in Kenya as avenues for policy intervention. A production frontier function was fitted to a random sample derived from a survey carried in 2007. Results show that all conventional inputs had the expected significance. On the inefficiency indicators, ownership to farmland, attendance to agricultural workshops, access to credit and participation in self-help groups significantly reduced inefficiency, while age, market distance, female gender and formal education increased inefficiency. Our findings suggest that within the available technologies, farmers can improve on their productivity if they nurture teamwork as in groups where labour is shared. Besides, better roads would reduce transaction costs and promote higher returns, and training in agriculture would boost efficient resources use for better performance. Therefore, there exists opportunity to improve efficiency in production given existing farm technologies.Technical Efficiency, Smallholder Farmers, Africa, Productivity Analysis,

Studies of the structures, biosynthesis and function of fungal glycosphingolipids

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are ubiquitously distributed among all eukaryotes. In fungi, GSLs have also been implicated in a variety of cellular processes, including growth, cell signaling, differentiation and morphogenesis. Detailed knowledge of fungal GSL structure and biosynthesis is therefore expected to yield valuable insights into both their functions within the organism and their interactions with other organisms, such as with the immune system, of an infected host as well as to provide targets for diagnostic and therapeutic agents. Research described in this thesis focused on fungal GSL structure and biosynthesis. Two projects are described. The first was aimed at elucidating the functions of GSLs in Neurospora crassa. The isolation and structural analysis of glycolinositolphosphoryl ceramides (GIPCs) from N. crassa wild type (ATCC 18889 and 24698) and a defensin-resistant mutant strain (SP 10) were attempted, using NMR, MS and other techniques. Although no GIPCs were ultimately isolated in this work, phosphatidylinositol, the donor substrate for inositolphosphorylceramide IPC synthase, was detected and characterized. In addition, a preliminary study of the effects of an inhibitor of GSL biosynthesis, 4\u27-ethylenedioxy-1-phenyl-2-palmitoyl-3-pyrrolidinopropanol (EDO-P4), was performed. The results of this experiment were consistent with inhibition of N. crassa glucosylceramide synthase (GCS) by EDO-P4. In the second project, studies of the structures and biosynthesis of glycosphingolipids of the pathogenic model fungus, Cryptococcus neoformans were performed on both the wild type (JEC 21) and a mutant, termed cxt1cxt2Delta, in which the genes for C. neoformans beta1,2-xylosyltransferases, Cxt1 and Cxt2 had been disrupted. Our results demonstrated an altered expression in GIPC structures in the absence of the two xylosyltransferases, characterized by the expression of normal C. neoformans GIPC core structure, but without addition of characteristic Xylbeta1,2 residue. We detected no residual xylose-containing GIPCs in the cxt1cxt2Delta mutant sample, confirming that no other enzyme performs the function of xylose addition during GIPC synthesis

Is Value Addition in Honey a Panacea for Poverty Reduction in the ASAL in Africa? Empirical Evidence from Baringo District, Kenya

Using survey data from 110 randomly selected honey producers from two divisions in Baringo this paper analyzes the constraints and drivers of value addition in honey, an economic activity with a potential to improve household livelihoods but whose development has remained rudimentary. Baringo District undergoes frequent and prolonged drought that impacts on household livelihood assets. The livelihoods have traditionally been agro-based but due to variations in climatic conditions, crop production has been very low. Livestock production has also been adversely affected by these trends, leaving honey production as a viable alternative for smallholder farmers since it is less dependent on, or affected by climatic variations and is not resource intensive. This study uses Heckman two stage and the logistic regression models to determine the extent of value addition contingent on the decision of a honey producer to participate in value addition activity, and to assess the link between honey value addition and household poverty status, respectively. The results show that the decision to add value is positively and significantly influenced by the amount of honey harvested, group membership and amount of hours spent on off-farm activities, while it is negatively influenced the age of the farmers and the education level of the household head. Value addition contributes to the reduction of poverty through the improvement of household incomes. This paper concludes measures need to be put in place that would encourage and facilitate the practice of value addition if the welfare of the poor rural population is to be improved.value addition, poverty reduction, drought, ASAL, Africa, Livestock Production/Industries,

Class Size and Student Achievement

The change from elite to mass higher education has arguably heightened pressure on HE in many countries. Therefore the relevance of class size with regard to student achievement and quality assurance has become such a topical issue. Thus, this study employs a quantitative method by way of a parametric paired t test to investigate the effect of splitting a large class into smaller groups in two successive semesters at an anonymous university. The identity of the university has not been revealed as per prior arrangement with the administration.  The data on the students’ performance in the two semesters is analysed and it is established that there is a positive relationship between class size and student achievement, even though it does not establish specifically how small is best. The paper begins with an introduction, discusses the methodology, then delves into the data and finally ends with some discussion and conclusion

Microbial quality and antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens isolated from groundwater used by residents of Ongata Rongai, Kajiado North County, Kenya

Groundwater represents an important source of drinking water and its quality is currently threatened by a combination of over-abstraction and microbiological and chemical contamination. Nairobi, Kenya and its environs is plagued with un-planned dwelling residential settlements, with limited potable water sources which are often contaminated by bacterial pathogens. This coupled with increased incidences of antibiotic resistance among the pathogens is alarming. This study used the MPN technique to determine indicator organisms, and the agar diffusion method to determine resistance in isolated pathogenic bacteria. The total coliforms values recorded were as high as 1.12x102 (±8.8x101) MPN/100 ml, fecal coliform loads were 8.63(±7.01) MPN/100 ml for the shopping centre. Total bacterial counts values recorded were as high as 5.64x104 (±1.77x104) CFU/ml at the shopping centre. Numerous organisms that are potential enteric pathogens such as Vibrio sp, Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., P. aeruginosa and E. coli were isolated from the water samples. There was high resistance to many antibiotics particularly sulphamoxazole (98.5%), kanamycin (95.3%) and ampicillin (87.5%). The most active antibiotics were chloramphenicol with resistance level of 45.4% and streptomycin (59.4%). The study indicates that water from the studied boreholes was not suitable for human consumption and therefore calls for urgent intervention. There is a high likelihood that congestion and lack of proper waste and waste water management is responsible for contamination of aquifers in this region.Keywords: groundwater, contamination, coliforms, potable water, antibiotic resistanc

Incorporating an Environmental Management Plan in Water Utilities Management Systems to Reduce Water Loss; Case of Non-Revenue Water in Kisumu City, Kenya

One of the biggest issues facing water utilities is the water loss experienced during the distribution process. This study sought to examine water distribution process in Kisumu and formulate an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to minimize water loss and mitigate their negative environmental impacts. A qualitative research approach and a case study research design were employed where 25 participants from Kisumu Water and Sanitation Company (KIWASCO) were interviewed in a Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Content analysis of the data collected indicated that water quality and quantity were greatly affected by water loss and the problems associated with them included water pollution due to introduction of contaminants when leakages or pipe bursts occur and water scarcity where the water utility was unable to make up for the amount of water lost. Water abstraction technique was also identified as a vital factor that determines how much water is lost even before it gets into the distribution system. Land/soil, socioeconomic and political environment were also some of the factors identified as they form the backbone of a functional EMP. The research concluded that as much as KIWASCO has a strategic plan to minimize these water losses, the goal entirely focuses on doing so for economic gains and not to address the associated negative environmental impacts hence the recommendation that there is need to incorporate an EMP in their management systems that will not only ensure high revenue generation but also guarantee the conservation of the said water resource to achieve environmental excellence

Variations in community perceptions of ecosystem services within the Tana River estuary, Kenya: Implications for ocean governance

Coastal communities in the Tana estuary, Kenya, rely on a variety of economic sectors linked to ecosystem services, including small-scale fisheries (SSF), commercial prawn fisheries, and tourism. Despite its environmental and social importance, the estuary has been negatively impacted by overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. As a result, developing integrated management approaches for this area is a priority. The integrated approach to ecosystem services (ES) evaluation has widespread support because it emphasizes people’s views of ecological value to human well-being and aims to provide a solution to the rapid depletion of our planet’s natural resources. This study applied mixed methods to understand the perspectives of the communities on ES. It was hypothesized that perceptions of ES differ across communities with different socioeconomic characteristics, and this hypothesis was tested in two communities (Ozi and Kipini) that share the same ecosystem but have different socioeconomic characteristics. Kipini is an area near the ocean, whereas Ozi is a rural area further upstream. Differences were noted in the valuation of cultural services, while there were similarities in provisioning and regulating services. Mangroves, other trees, and river systems were considered to have higher ES provision than the ocean, floodplains, and settlement areas. The Ozi community ranked the ocean higher than the Kipini community, even though Ozi was located further upstream from the ocean; consequently, the perception that communities benefit more from resources that they are close to could be false. The relevance of using social ES identification to determine the distribution of benefits from coastal ES is highlighted in this study and will be beneficial for informing decision-making and developing all-inclusive governance structures

Understanding of Sustainable Development Goals among communities living adjacent to mangroves in Kenya

Mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems, known for their diverse provisioning, regulating, supporting and aesthetic services. The ecosystem directly supports livelihoods and ensures food security and nutrition of people through its ecosystem services (ES) such as wood, fish and medicines while protecting them by stabilizing shorelines, reducing flooding, and mitigating climate change and natural disasters such as tsunamis. In so doing, the ecosystem promotes several sustainable development goals (SDGs) and co-benefits several others. This relationship however remains under explored with limited studies on the co-benefit scenarios and the cognitive views of mangrove resource users. This paper highlights gaps in knowledge of the role of mangroves in development and the implications on ecosystem governance. The study analysed the ‘ideal’ scenario presented in secondary data in comparison to community perspectives on mangrove-related development. Bearing in mind the complexity of the concept of sustainability, development was categorised at local, national and international levels, and community members were asked to mention any known links to mangrove ES at any of the three levels. Results indicate that 45.4 % (n=166) of the community understood the roles of mangroves in development. The majority (79.5 %) were able to link the ecosystem to local (village level) development, 43.1 % to both local and national development while only 13.5 % could link the ecosystem to local, national, and international development. Forty-three per cent (n=157) of the community did not know of the relationship between mangroves and development while 11.6 % (n=43) felt that mangroves do not contribute to development. The study further disaggregated this knowledge socio-demographically, highlighting opportunities for enhancing governance, conservation and the use of mangrove ecosystems in Kenya