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    Chitipati of the eighteenth century in Rubin Museum

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(์„์‚ฌ) -- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ์ธ๋ฌธ๋Œ€ํ•™ ๊ณ ๊ณ ๋ฏธ์ˆ ์‚ฌํ•™๊ณผ(๋ฏธ์ˆ ์‚ฌํ•™์ „๊ณต), 2022.2. ์ด์ฃผํ˜•.This thesis discusses the ways in which the iconographic changes of Chitipati (ล›mฤล›ฤna adhipati, dur khrod bdag po) of the eighteenth century in Rubin Museum reflect the higher concept of Yoginitantras, the practice of the Charnel ground, and the context of Tantric rituals of Tibet. This Buddhist painting features unique elements that distinguish it from existing Thangkas within the theme of Chitipatiโ€”that is, the lords of the Charnel ground in Tibet. In early Chitipati paintings, which faithfully reflected a description of Dur khrod bdag po Sฤdhanฤ (Dur khrod bdag po'i sgrub skor bzhugs so) written by Sa chen kun dga' snying po (1092โ€“1158) of sa-skya-pa in the twelflth century, Chitipati is portrayed in a dancing posture, stepping on a conch, against the background of a flame of wisdom burning on the Charnel ground. In the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum, however, a two-story pavilion appears in the center of the painting, instead of the conch and the flame background. At the top of this building, ลšrฤซ Heruka (Cakrasaแนƒvara, 'khor lo bde mchog) and Vajrayoginฤซ (Vajravฤrฤhฤซ, rdo rje rnal 'byor ma) are placed as the higher deities, surrounded by naked human figures whose identities are unclear. Cakrasaแนƒvara and his consort, Vajrayoginฤซ, are among the most important deities of the Yoginitantras, which are designated as the "Mother-Tantra" section of the Anuttarayogatantras. In this paper, I analyze the background of these changes, discussing it in three categories. The first is the concept of the "residence of แธฤkinฤซ (mkha' 'gro ma)" and "the Charnel ground" of the Yoginitantras. The second is the Tibetan practice of the cemetery, "gcod." And lastly, I examine the dance of Chitipati in "'cham," a well-known Buddhist ritual of Tibet. The pavilion in the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum is likely a palace, symbolizing the place where Chitipati resides, Oแธแธiyฤna. Oแธแธiyฤna was regarded as a geographical pilgrimage site for Mahayana and Tantra Buddhism, and along with the development of Yoginitantra, it was also considered a sacred site of Tantra, "Pฤซแนญhฤ," and "the Pure Land of แธฤkinฤซ." The pure land of Padmasambhฤva or Vajrayoginฤซ is deeply related to Oแธแธiyฤna as a conceptual sacred place, and in both of these pure lands, many แธฤkinฤซs reside. In Tibetan Buddhist art, the pure land is also a representative iconography that describes the palace ruled by the main deity in the center of the thangka. The huge palace of the chief figure, assumed to be located in Oแธแธiyฤna, is generally depicted in the center of these two "pure land" images. Therefore, we note the possibility that the central building where Chitipati dances may be the palace of Oแธแธiyฤna. In Yoginitantra, furthermore, the แธฤkinฤซ's residence is universally considered the Charnel ground, which is ideally connected to the place protected by the Chitipati, lords of the Charnel ground. It is also believed that the palace of Heruka and Vajrayoginฤซ, lords of แธฤkinฤซs, is located in Oแธแธiyฤna. According to Cakrasaแนƒvaratantra, among the twenty-four sacred sites, the four-essence yoginฤซs who live in the Charnel ground (ล›mฤล›ฤna) type are embodied as surrounding the highest deities in a square shape. Outside this square, a number of แธฤkinฤซs protecting "the eight great Charnel grounds (aแนฃแนญamahฤล›mฤล›ฤna, dur khrod chen po brgyad)" encircle (saแนvaแน›a) mandala like a net (แธฤkinฤซjฤla). Because of this, we cannot overlook the possibility that the pavilion drawn in the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum is a palace for the two upper deities. The producers and viewers of this thangka must have visualized the Cakrasaแนƒva mandala surrounded by numerous แธฤkinฤซs around the highest deities. The sky burial ground and human figures painted in the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum can be understood through "gcod," the Tibetan cemetery practice, using the sky burial ground or isolated places (dben sa) that evoke fear as the space for the ritual. The most renowned method of Tibetan funeral custom is not cremation but a sky burial, so the role of the Chitipati is not limited to simply protecting the crematorium. The cult of Chitipati and the tradition of gcod are closely related, having developed together. For example, Chitipati is described at the bottom of the "Field of Assembly (tshogs zhing)" as depicting Ma gcig lab sgron (1055โ€“1149) who was the founder of gcod. And the highest goddess of gcod is black Vajrayoginฤซ (Krodikali, khros ma nag mo), the higher deity of Chitipati. In addition, we should note that in a contemporary work that shows similar iconographic changes to the Chitipati of the Rubin Museum, the yogis who are viewed as gcod practitioners are depicted at the bottom. The essential initiation of gcod, "sky opener practice (nam mkha' sgo byed)," which involves the transference of the practitioner's consciousness ('pho ba) to Vajrayoginฤซ, is likely to be directly related to the human figures illustrated in some Chitipati thangkas of the eighteenth century. According to the completion stage (rdzogs rim), one of the significant visualization methods of Anuttarayogatantra in Tibet, at enlightenment (Siddhi) the practitioner is believed to obtain an illusory body instead of the original body. In gcod, this illusory body (sgyu lus) corresponds to the mind/consciousness separating from the top of the head and uniting with Vajrayoginฤซ. In addition, the fact that one human silhouette floats on the roof in this work might relate to Yoginitantra's general perception system, which seeks to visualize แธฤkinฤซs, generally identified with nothing (ลšลซnyatฤ), and who have the ability to fly in the air (khecaratva). Thus, the human figures drawn in the Chitipati of the Rubin Museum are likely the consciousness of the practitioners which are separated from the body. On the other hand, the dance of these lords of the Charnel ground, described in the Chitipati of the Rubin Museum, can be interpreted in conjunction with the notion of Tantric ritual, "'dul ba." Dur khrod bdag po Sฤdhanฤ mentions that the dance of Chitipati conquers evil spirits. Chitipati's dance, performed after "Abhisheka" in the 'cham ritual, a large Buddhist masque ceremony in Tibet, plays a prominent role in taming an evil effigy called "Liแน…ga." The Liแน…ga was originally a symbol of ลšiva in Hinduism, but in Tibetan rituals it refers to my internal or external enemies, as well as a gathering of all negative characteristics. The ritual of hoping for liberation through Liแน…ga's execution is the key process of 'cham. Death and liberation are the central narratives of Tantric literature. In Tantra Buddhism since the eighth century, it is common to see that Heruka, an emanation of Vajrapani, executed ลšiva or his incarnations and attributed them to the Mandala of Buddhism. 'Chams yig, written in the seventeenth century, also states that 'cham is the process of the taming of Rudra by Heruka. Rudra, another name for ลšiva, is represented as an effigy, Liแน…ga, a symbol of evil, is then finally killed by a dagger (phur pa) for purification and liberation in the tradition of Vajrakilaya, or "Heruka, the owner of the dagger." That Chitipati's dance, which tames Liแน…ga, replaces Heruka's role in 'cham, which consists almost entirely of protector deity characters (dharmapฤla), is related to the background of Chitipati's belonging to Heruka's clan. The arrangement of Cakrasaแนƒvara (Heruka) as the upper deity of Chitipati at the Rubin Museum suggests the genealogy of "Deity of the Charnel ground" of the Yoginitantras in Tibetan Buddhism, which lead from Bhairava to Cakrasaแนƒvara. The origin of Heruka is related to the deprivation of the form of Bhairava, a cemetery deity of Kฤpฤlika tradition, and the cult of Bhairava that had been the center of Shaivism since the eighth century exerted an enormous influence on Buddhist Yoginitantra. Focusing on Vajrayoginฤซ, the consort of Cakrasaแนƒvara and the chief deity of the actual cemetery practice of Tibet, it seems to be related to the establishment of the upper deities of Chitipati. Sa chen kun dga' snying po must have accepted Chitipati, recognizing this genealogy in the Yoginitantra and saแนƒvara tradition, which emphasizes the cult of the Charnel ground. As such, the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum is an important image in which the perception and practice system of the upper tantra and the ritual context intersect.๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋‰ด์š• ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€(Rubin Museum) ์†Œ์žฅ 18์„ธ๊ธฐ ์ž‘ ์— ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚˜๋Š” ๋„์ƒ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๊ด€๋… ๋ฐ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๊ณผ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ์˜๋ก€์ ์ธ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์„ ๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Œ์„ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ถˆํ™”์—๋Š” ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์—์„œ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธ์‹ ์ธ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๋ฅผ ์ฃผ์ œ๋กœ ํ•œ ๊ธฐ์กด ํƒ•์นด๋“ค๊ณผ ์ฐจ๋ณ„ํ™”๋˜๋Š” ๋…ํŠนํ•œ ์š”์†Œ๋“ค์ด ๋“ฑ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค. 12์„ธ๊ธฐ์— ์‚ฌ๊บ„ํŒŒ(sa-skya-pa)์˜ ์‚ฌ์ฒธ ๋€๊ฐ€ ๋‹๋ฝ€(sa chen kun dga' snying po, 1092-1158)์— ์˜ํ•ด ์“ฐ์ธ ใ€Ž๋‘๋ฅด ํ‡ด ๋‹ฅ๋ฝ€ ์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜(dur khrod bdag po'i sgrub skor bzhugs so)ใ€์˜ ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ์ถฉ์‹คํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•œ ์ด๋ฅธ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์˜ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋ถˆํ™”์—์„œ, ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๋Š” ์†Œ๋ผ๊ณ ๋‘ฅ์„ ๋ฐŸ์€ ์ฑ„ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์— ํƒ€์˜ค๋ฅด๋Š” ์ง€ํ˜œ์˜ ํ™”์—ผ์„ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์œผ๋กœ ์ถค์ถ”๋Š” ๋ชจ์Šต์œผ๋กœ ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์—์„œ๋Š” ์†Œ๋ผ๊ณ ๋‘ฅ๊ณผ ํ™”์—ผ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ ๋Œ€์‹  ์ „๊ฐ ๋„์ƒ์ด ๋ถˆํ™” ์ค‘์•™์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„๋‹ค. ์ด ์ „๊ฐ ์ƒ๋‹จ์—๋Š” ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด[์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ](ลšrฤซ Heruka/Cakrasaแนƒvara, 'khor lo bde mchog)์™€ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ๋ฐ”๋ผํžˆ[๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ](Vajravฤrฤhฤซ/Vajrayoginฤซ, rdo rje rnal 'byor ma)๊ฐ€ ์ƒ์œ„ ๋ณธ์กด์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐฐ์น˜๋˜๋ฉฐ, ๊ทธ ์ฃผ์œ„๋กœ๋Š” ์ •์ฒด๊ฐ€ ๋ถˆ๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•œ ๋‚˜์ฒด์˜ ์ธ๊ฐ„ ํ˜•์ƒ์ด ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋„์ƒ ๋ณ€ํ™”์˜ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์„ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ฒซ์งธ๋กœ ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ โ€˜๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ(แธฤkinฤซ, mkha' 'gro ma)์˜ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผ์ง€โ€™์™€ โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ(ล›mฤล›ฤna, dur khrod, charnel ground)โ€™ ๊ด€๋…์„, ๋‘˜์งธ๋กœ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ธ โ€˜์ฌ(gcod)โ€™๋ฅผ, ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค์ด ์‹ค์ œ๋กœ ๊ณต์—ฐ๋˜๋Š” ๋ถˆ๊ต ์˜๋ก€์ธ โ€˜์ฐธ('cham)โ€™์„ ๊ฒ€ํ† ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์ค‘์•™์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์ „๊ฐ์€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผํ•˜๋Š” ์žฅ์†Œ, โ€˜์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜(Oแธแธiyฤna)โ€™๋ฅผ ์ƒ์ง•ํ™”ํ•œ ๊ถ์ „์ผ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋†’๋‹ค. ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜๋Š” ๋Œ€์Šน ๋ถˆ๊ต์™€ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ๋ถˆ๊ต์˜ ์‹ค์žฌํ•˜๋Š” ์ˆœ๋ก€์ง€์ž„๊ณผ ๋™์‹œ์—, ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๋ฐœ์ „๊ณผ ๋”๋ถˆ์–ด ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๊ด€๋…ํ™”๋œ โ€˜์„ฑ์ง€(Pฤซแนญhฤ)โ€™์ด์ž โ€˜๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ์˜ ์ •ํ† โ€™๋กœ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์กŒ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ ํŒŒ๋“œ๋งˆ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ฐ”์˜ ์ •ํ† ๋„ ํ˜น์€ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์˜ ์ •ํ† ๋„๋Š” ๊ด€๋…์ ์ธ ์„ฑ์ง€๋กœ์„œ์˜ ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ์ด ๊นŠ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๋‘ ์ •ํ† ๋Š” ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์ด ๊ฑฐ์ฃผํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋ฐ์„œ ๊ณตํ†ต์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ ๋ถˆ๊ต๋ฏธ์ˆ ์—์„œ ์ •ํ† ๋„๋Š” ์ฃผ์กด์ด ๋‹ค์Šค๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ถ๊ถ์„ ๋ถˆํ™” ์ค‘์•™์— ํฌ๊ฒŒ ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌํ•˜๋Š” ํ˜•์‹์„ ์ทจํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์˜ ์ „๊ฐ ๋˜ํ•œ ์ •ํ† ๋„์— ๊ด€์Šต์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง€๋Š” ๊ถ๊ถ ๋ˆ„๊ฐ์œผ๋กœ ํ•ด์„๋  ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฐ๋ฐ ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์—์„œ ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ์˜ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผ์ง€๋Š” ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๋ผ๊ณ  ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์ง€๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธ์‹ ์ธ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธํ•˜๋Š” ๊ณต๊ฐ„๊ณผ ๊ด€๋…์ ์œผ๋กœ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์˜ ์ฃผ์กด์ธ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์™€ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์˜ ๊ถ์ „์€ ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์˜ ์„ค์‚ฐ์— ์œ„์น˜ํ•œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์กŒ๋‹ค. ใ€Ž์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผใ€์˜ 24๊ณณ์˜ ์„ฑ์ง€ ๊ฐ€์šด๋ฐ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ ์œ ํ˜•์— ๊ฑฐ์ฃผํ•˜๋Š” ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์˜ ์ •์ˆ˜๋“ค(four essence yoginis)์€ ์ด ๋‘ ๋ณธ์กด์„ ์‚ฌ๊ฐํ˜•์œผ๋กœ ๋‘˜๋Ÿฌ์‹ผ ๋ชจ์Šต์œผ๋กœ ํ˜•์ƒํ™”๋œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์ด ์‚ฌ๊ฐํ˜•์˜ ๋ฐ”๊นฅ์ชฝ์œผ๋กœ, โ€˜8๊ฐœ์˜ ์œ„๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ(aแนฃแนญamahฤล›mฤล›ฤna, dur khrod chen po brgyad)โ€™๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธํ•˜๋Š” ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์ด ๋งŒ๋‹ค๋ผ๋ฅผ ๊ทธ๋ฌผ์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ ์—์›Œ์‹ธ๋Š”(saแนvaแน›a) ํ˜•ํƒœ๋ฅผ ๋งŒ๋“ค์–ด๋‚ธ๋‹ค(แธฤkinฤซjฤla). ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์˜ ์ „๊ฐ์€ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์ƒ์ง•ํ•˜๋Š” ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์˜ ๊ถ๊ถ ๋ˆ„๊ฐ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์ด๋ฉฐ, ์ด ํƒ•์นด์˜ ์ œ์ž‘์ž ๋ฐ ๊ด€๋žŒ์ž๋Š” ์ „๊ฐ ์ƒ๋‹จ์— ๋ฐฐ์น˜๋œ ๋‘ ๋ณธ์กด ์ฃผ์œ„๋กœ ์ˆ˜๋งŽ์€ ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์ด ๋‘˜๋Ÿฌ์‹ผ ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ ๋งŒ๋‹ค๋ผ๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ƒํ•˜์˜€์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์กฐ์žฅ(้ณฅ่‘ฌ)ํ„ฐ์™€ ์ธ๊ฐ„์˜ ํ˜•์ƒ์€ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ๋“ฑ ๊ณตํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ถˆ๋Ÿฌ์ผ์œผํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ณ ๋ฆฝ๋œ ์žฅ์†Œ(dben sa)๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ฒ˜๋กœ ํ™œ์šฉํ•œ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ธ ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ๋ฌ˜์ง€๋Š” ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๊ฐ€ ์•„๋‹Œ ์กฐ์žฅํ„ฐ์ด๋ฏ€๋กœ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์—ญํ• ์€ ๋‹จ์ˆœํžˆ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ํ•œ์ •๋˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค. ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ์‹ ์•™๊ณผ ์ฌ์˜ ์ „ํ†ต์€ ๋ฐ€์ ‘ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ ๋งบ๊ณ  ๋ฐœ์ „ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์˜ˆ์ปจ๋Œ€ ์ฌ์˜ ์ฐฝ์‹œ์ž์ธ ๋งˆ์ฐ ๋ž๋œ(ma gcig lab sgron, 1055-1149)์„ ๊ทธ๋ฆฐ ์ด‰์‹ฑ(tshogs zhing) ํ•˜๋‹จ์—๋Š” ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง€๋ฉฐ, ์ฌ์˜ ์ฃผ์กด์€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ƒ์œ„ ๋ณธ์กด์ธ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ๋„์ƒ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๋™์‹œ๋Œ€์˜ ์ž‘ํ’ˆ์˜ ํ•˜๋‹จ์—๋Š” ์ฌ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž๋กœ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž๋“ค์ด ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌ๋œ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ ์ฌ์˜ ํ•„์ˆ˜ ์ ˆ์ฐจ์ธ โ€˜์˜์‹์˜ ์ „์ด('pho ba)โ€™ ๊ด€์ƒ๋ฒ•์€ 18์„ธ๊ธฐ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ํƒ•์นด๋“ค์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์ธ๊ฐ„์˜ ํ˜•์ƒ๋“ค๊ณผ ์ง์ ‘์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋œ๋‹ค. ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋ณดํŽธ์ ์ธ ๊ด€์ƒ๋ฒ•์˜ ํ‹€์ธ ์–‘ ์ฐจ์ œ ๊ฐ€์šด๋ฐ ์›๋งŒ์ฐจ์ œ(ๅœ“ๆปฟๆฌก็ฌฌ, rdzogs rim)์— ์˜๊ฑฐํ•˜๋ฉด, ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž๋Š” ๋ณธ๋ž˜์˜ ์œก์ฒด ๋Œ€์‹  ํ™˜์‹ (ๅนป่บซ, sgyu lus)์„ ์–ป๋Š”๋‹ค. ์ฌ์—์„œ ์ด ํ™˜์‹ ์€ ์ •์ˆ˜๋ฆฌ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋น ์ ธ๋‚˜์™€ ์ฃผ์กด ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์™€ ํ•ฉ์ผํ•˜๋Š” ์˜์‹๊ณผ ์ƒ์‘ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์—์„œ ํ•œ ํ˜•์ƒ์ด ์ง€๋ถ• ์œ„์— ๋–  ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค์€ โ€˜ํ•˜๋Š˜์„ ๋‚˜๋Š” ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ(khecaratva)โ€™์„ ์ง€๋…”์œผ๋ฉฐ โ€˜๊ณต์„ฑ(็ฉบๆ€ง)โ€™ ๊ทธ ์ž์ฒด๋กœ๋„ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์ง„ ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ƒํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜๋Š” ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์ธ ์ธ์‹ ์ฒด๊ณ„์™€๋„ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์ธ๊ฐ„์˜ ํ˜•์ƒ์€ ์œก์‹ ์—์„œ ๋น ์ ธ๋‚˜์˜จ ์ฌ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž์˜ ์˜์‹์ผ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ์ถฉ๋ถ„ํ•˜๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง€๋Š” ์‹ ์˜ ์ถค์€ โ€˜์กฐ๋ณต('dul ba)โ€™์ด๋ผ๋Š” ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ์˜๋ก€์ ์ธ ๊ด€์ ๊ณผ ๊ฒฐ๋ถ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ํ•ด์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ใ€Ž๋‘๋ฅด ํ‡ด ๋‹ฅ๋ฝ€ ์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€์—์„œ๋Š” ์‹ ์˜ ์ถค์ด ์•…๊ท€๋ฅผ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ์–ธ๊ธ‰ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฐธ ์˜๋ก€์—์„œ ๊ด€์ •(็Œ้ ‚) ์˜์‹์„ ๊ฑฐ์นœ ํ›„ ์‹ค์ œ๋กœ ๊ณต์—ฐ๋˜๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•˜๋Š” ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค์€ ๋ง๊ฐ€(liแน…ga)๋ผ๊ณ  ๋ถˆ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์•…ํ•œ ์กฐํ˜•๋ฌผ์„ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•˜๋Š” ์—ญํ• ์„ ๋‹ด๋‹นํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ง๊ฐ€๋Š” ํžŒ๋‘๊ต์—์„œ ์‹œ๋ฐ”์‹ ์˜ ํ‘œ์ƒ์ด์—ˆ์œผ๋‚˜, ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ ์˜๋ก€์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ถ€์ •์ ์ด๊ณ  ์•…ํ•œ ํŠน์งˆ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ง๊ฐ€์˜ โ€˜์ฒ˜ํ˜•โ€™์„ ํ†ตํ•ด โ€˜ํ•ด๋ฐฉโ€™์„ ๋ฐ”๋ผ๋Š” ์˜์‹์€ ์ฐธ์˜ ํ•ต์‹ฌ ์ ˆ์ฐจ์ด๋‹ค. ์ฒ˜ํ˜•๊ณผ ํ•ด๋ฐฉ์€ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ๋ฌธํ—Œ์˜ ์ค‘์‹ฌ ์„œ์‚ฌ์ด๋‹ค. 8์„ธ๊ธฐ ์ด๋ž˜ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ๋ถˆ๊ต์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผํŒŒ๋‹ˆ๊ฐ€ ํ˜„ํ˜„ํ•œ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด๊ฐ€ ์‹œ๋ฐ” ํ˜น์€ ๊ทธ์˜ ํ™”์‹ ์„ ์ฒ˜ํ˜•ํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ถˆ๊ต์˜ ๋งŒ๋‹ค๋ผ๋กœ ๊ท€์†์‹œ์ผฐ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋‚ด์šฉ์ด ํ”ํžˆ ๋“ฑ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค. 17์„ธ๊ธฐ์— ์“ฐ์ธ ใ€Ž์ฐธ์˜ ์ง€์นจ์„œ('chams yig)ใ€์—์„œ๋„ ์ฐธ์˜ ๋ชฉ์ ์— ๋Œ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด๊ฐ€ ๋ฃจ๋“œ๋ผ(Rudra)๋ฅผ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•˜๋Š” ๊ณผ์ •์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ๋ช…์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ์‹œ๋ฐ”์˜ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ด๋ฆ„์ธ ๋ฃจ๋“œ๋ผ๋Š” โ€˜๋‹จ๋„์˜ ์†Œ์ง€์žโ€™๋กœ์„œ์˜ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด๋ฅผ ๋œปํ•˜๋Š” โ€˜๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผํ‚ฌ๋ผ์•ผ(Vajrakilaya)โ€™ ์˜๋ก€ ์ „ํ†ต์—์„œ ์กฐํ˜•๋ฌผ์ธ ๋ง๊ฐ€๋กœ ์‹œ๊ฐํ™”๋˜์–ด ๋‹จ๋„์— ์˜ํ•ด ์ฒ˜ํ˜•๋œ๋‹ค. ๋“ฑ์žฅ์ธ๋ฌผ์ด ๊ฑฐ์˜ ํ˜ธ๋ฒ•์‹ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋œ ์ฐธ์—์„œ ๋ง๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•˜๋Š” ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค์ด ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์˜ ์—ญํ• ์„ ๋Œ€์‹ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค์€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์˜ ๊ณ„๋ณด์— ์†ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋œ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์—์„œ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ƒ์œ„ ์‹ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ๊ฐ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜๋œ ๊ฒƒ์€ ๋ฐ”์ด๋ผ๋ฐ”์—์„œ ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ[ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด]๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง€๋Š” ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ ๋ถˆ๊ต ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹ โ€™ ๊ณ„๋ณด๋ฅผ ์•”์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์˜ ๊ธฐ์›์€ ์นดํŒ”๋ฆฌ์นด(Kฤpฤlika) ์ „ํ†ต์˜ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹ , ์ฆ‰ ๋ฐ”์ด๋ผ๋ฐ”(Bhairava)์˜ ์ด๋ฆ„๊ณผ ํ˜•ํƒœ๋ฅผ ๋นผ์•—์€ ๊ฒƒ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋˜๋Š”๋ฐ, 8์„ธ๊ธฐ ์ดํ›„ ์‹œ๋ฐ”๊ต์˜ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์„ ์ด๋ฃฌ ๋ฐ”์ด๋ผ๋ฐ” ์‹ ์•™์€ ๋ถˆ๊ต ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์— ๋ง‰๋Œ€ํ•œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ผ์ณค๋‹ค. ์ฌ๋ผ๋Š” ์‹ค์ œ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์˜ ์ฃผ์กด์ด ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ์˜ ๋ฐฐ์šฐ์ž์ธ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ๋ผ๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค ๋˜ํ•œ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ƒ์œ„ ๋ณธ์กด ์ •๋ฆฝ๊ณผ ํฐ ๊ด€๋ จ์ด ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ใ€Ž๋‘๋ฅด ํ‡ด ๋‹ฅ๋ฝ€ ์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€๋ฅผ ์ €์ˆ ํ•œ ์‚ฌ์ฒธ ๋€๊ฐ€ ๋‹๋ฝ€๋Š” โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ ์‹ ์•™โ€™์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๋Š” ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹ โ€™ ๊ณ„๋ณด๋ฅผ ์—ผ๋‘์— ๋‘๊ณ  ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜์šฉํ•˜์˜€์Œ์— ํ‹€๋ฆผ์—†๋‹ค. ์ด์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ, ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ๋Š” ์ƒ์œ„ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๊ด€๋… ๋ฐ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๊ณผ ์˜๋ก€์ ์ธ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์ด ๋ณตํ•ฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ต์ฐจํ•  ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์ธ๋“ค์˜ ๋ฌ˜์ง€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ธ์‹์„ ์ข…ํ•ฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์ž‘๋ก€์ด๋‹ค.โ… . ์„œ๋ก  1 โ…ก. ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋„์ƒ๊ณผ ใ€Ž์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€ 11 2.1 ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ 11 2.2 ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋„์ƒ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”์™€ ใ€Ž์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€ 17 โ…ข. ์ „๊ฐ๊ณผ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ 24 3.1 ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ์„ฑ์ง€, ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์™€ ์ •ํ† ๋„ 24 3.2 ใ€Ž์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผใ€์˜ ์„ฑ์ง€์™€ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ 34 โ…ฃ. ์ฌ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๊ณผ ๋„์ƒ์  ๋ฐ˜์˜ 43 4.1 ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ์‹ ์•™๊ณผ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ 43 4.2 18์„ธ๊ธฐ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋ถˆํ™”์˜ ์ธ๊ฐ„ ํ˜•์ƒ 51 โ…ค. ์ฐธ ์˜๋ก€์™€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค 58 5.1 ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค 58 5.2 ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹  ๊ณ„๋ณด์˜ ์ „์Šน 65 โ…ฅ. ๊ฒฐ๋ก  74 ์ฐธ๊ณ ๋ฌธํ—Œ 77 ๋„ํŒ๋ชฉ๋ก 89 ๋„ํŒ 94 Abstract 123์„

    Chitipati of the eighteenth century in Rubin Museum

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    This thesis discusses the ways in which the iconographic changes of Chitipati (ล›mฤล›ฤna adhipati, dur khrod bdag po) of the eighteenth century in Rubin Museum reflect the higher concept of Yoginitantras, the practice of the Charnel ground, and the context of Tantric rituals of Tibet. This Buddhist painting features unique elements that distinguish it from existing Thangkas within the theme of Chitipatiโ€”that is, the lords of the Charnel ground in Tibet. In early Chitipati paintings, which faithfully reflected a description of Dur khrod bdag po Sฤdhanฤ (Dur khrod bdag po'i sgrub skor bzhugs so) written by Sa chen kun dga' snying po (1092โ€“1158) of sa-skya-pa in the twelflth century, Chitipati is portrayed in a dancing posture, stepping on a conch, against the background of a flame of wisdom burning on the Charnel ground. In the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum, however, a two-story pavilion appears in the center of the painting, instead of the conch and the flame background. At the top of this building, ลšrฤซ Heruka (Cakrasaแนƒvara, 'khor lo bde mchog) and Vajrayoginฤซ (Vajravฤrฤhฤซ, rdo rje rnal 'byor ma) are placed as the higher deities, surrounded by naked human figures whose identities are unclear. Cakrasaแนƒvara and his consort, Vajrayoginฤซ, are among the most important deities of the Yoginitantras, which are designated as the "Mother-Tantra" section of the Anuttarayogatantras. In this paper, I analyze the background of these changes, discussing it in three categories. The first is the concept of the "residence of แธฤkinฤซ (mkha' 'gro ma)" and "the Charnel ground" of the Yoginitantras. The second is the Tibetan practice of the cemetery, "gcod." And lastly, I examine the dance of Chitipati in "'cham," a well-known Buddhist ritual of Tibet. The pavilion in the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum is likely a palace, symbolizing the place where Chitipati resides, Oแธแธiyฤna. Oแธแธiyฤna was regarded as a geographical pilgrimage site for Mahayana and Tantra Buddhism, and along with the development of Yoginitantra, it was also considered a sacred site of Tantra, "Pฤซแนญhฤ," and "the Pure Land of แธฤkinฤซ." The pure land of Padmasambhฤva or Vajrayoginฤซ is deeply related to Oแธแธiyฤna as a conceptual sacred place, and in both of these pure lands, many แธฤkinฤซs reside. In Tibetan Buddhist art, the pure land is also a representative iconography that describes the palace ruled by the main deity in the center of the thangka. The huge palace of the chief figure, assumed to be located in Oแธแธiyฤna, is generally depicted in the center of these two "pure land" images. Therefore, we note the possibility that the central building where Chitipati dances may be the palace of Oแธแธiyฤna. In Yoginitantra, furthermore, the แธฤkinฤซ's residence is universally considered the Charnel ground, which is ideally connected to the place protected by the Chitipati, lords of the Charnel ground. It is also believed that the palace of Heruka and Vajrayoginฤซ, lords of แธฤkinฤซs, is located in Oแธแธiyฤna. According to Cakrasaแนƒvaratantra, among the twenty-four sacred sites, the four-essence yoginฤซs who live in the Charnel ground (ล›mฤล›ฤna) type are embodied as surrounding the highest deities in a square shape. Outside this square, a number of แธฤkinฤซs protecting "the eight great Charnel grounds (aแนฃแนญamahฤล›mฤล›ฤna, dur khrod chen po brgyad)" encircle (saแนvaแน›a) mandala like a net (แธฤkinฤซjฤla). Because of this, we cannot overlook the possibility that the pavilion drawn in the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum is a palace for the two upper deities. The producers and viewers of this thangka must have visualized the Cakrasaแนƒva mandala surrounded by numerous แธฤkinฤซs around the highest deities. The sky burial ground and human figures painted in the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum can be understood through "gcod," the Tibetan cemetery practice, using the sky burial ground or isolated places (dben sa) that evoke fear as the space for the ritual. The most renowned method of Tibetan funeral custom is not cremation but a sky burial, so the role of the Chitipati is not limited to simply protecting the crematorium. The cult of Chitipati and the tradition of gcod are closely related, having developed together. For example, Chitipati is described at the bottom of the "Field of Assembly (tshogs zhing)" as depicting Ma gcig lab sgron (1055โ€“1149) who was the founder of gcod. And the highest goddess of gcod is black Vajrayoginฤซ (Krodikali, khros ma nag mo), the higher deity of Chitipati. In addition, we should note that in a contemporary work that shows similar iconographic changes to the Chitipati of the Rubin Museum, the yogis who are viewed as gcod practitioners are depicted at the bottom. The essential initiation of gcod, "sky opener practice (nam mkha' sgo byed)," which involves the transference of the practitioner's consciousness ('pho ba) to Vajrayoginฤซ, is likely to be directly related to the human figures illustrated in some Chitipati thangkas of the eighteenth century. According to the completion stage (rdzogs rim), one of the significant visualization methods of Anuttarayogatantra in Tibet, at enlightenment (Siddhi) the practitioner is believed to obtain an illusory body instead of the original body. In gcod, this illusory body (sgyu lus) corresponds to the mind/consciousness separating from the top of the head and uniting with Vajrayoginฤซ. In addition, the fact that one human silhouette floats on the roof in this work might relate to Yoginitantra's general perception system, which seeks to visualize แธฤkinฤซs, generally identified with nothing (ลšลซnyatฤ), and who have the ability to fly in the air (khecaratva). Thus, the human figures drawn in the Chitipati of the Rubin Museum are likely the consciousness of the practitioners which are separated from the body. On the other hand, the dance of these lords of the Charnel ground, described in the Chitipati of the Rubin Museum, can be interpreted in conjunction with the notion of Tantric ritual, "'dul ba." Dur khrod bdag po Sฤdhanฤ mentions that the dance of Chitipati conquers evil spirits. Chitipati's dance, performed after "Abhisheka" in the 'cham ritual, a large Buddhist masque ceremony in Tibet, plays a prominent role in taming an evil effigy called "Liแน…ga." The Liแน…ga was originally a symbol of ลšiva in Hinduism, but in Tibetan rituals it refers to my internal or external enemies, as well as a gathering of all negative characteristics. The ritual of hoping for liberation through Liแน…ga's execution is the key process of 'cham. Death and liberation are the central narratives of Tantric literature. In Tantra Buddhism since the eighth century, it is common to see that Heruka, an emanation of Vajrapani, executed ลšiva or his incarnations and attributed them to the Mandala of Buddhism. 'Chams yig, written in the seventeenth century, also states that 'cham is the process of the taming of Rudra by Heruka. Rudra, another name for ลšiva, is represented as an effigy, Liแน…ga, a symbol of evil, is then finally killed by a dagger (phur pa) for purification and liberation in the tradition of Vajrakilaya, or "Heruka, the owner of the dagger." That Chitipati's dance, which tames Liแน…ga, replaces Heruka's role in 'cham, which consists almost entirely of protector deity characters (dharmapฤla), is related to the background of Chitipati's belonging to Heruka's clan. The arrangement of Cakrasaแนƒvara (Heruka) as the upper deity of Chitipati at the Rubin Museum suggests the genealogy of "Deity of the Charnel ground" of the Yoginitantras in Tibetan Buddhism, which lead from Bhairava to Cakrasaแนƒvara. The origin of Heruka is related to the deprivation of the form of Bhairava, a cemetery deity of Kฤpฤlika tradition, and the cult of Bhairava that had been the center of Shaivism since the eighth century exerted an enormous influence on Buddhist Yoginitantra. Focusing on Vajrayoginฤซ, the consort of Cakrasaแนƒvara and the chief deity of the actual cemetery practice of Tibet, it seems to be related to the establishment of the upper deities of Chitipati. Sa chen kun dga' snying po must have accepted Chitipati, recognizing this genealogy in the Yoginitantra and saแนƒvara tradition, which emphasizes the cult of the Charnel ground. As such, the Chitipati at the Rubin Museum is an important image in which the perception and practice system of the upper tantra and the ritual context intersect.๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋‰ด์š• ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€(Rubin Museum) ์†Œ์žฅ 18์„ธ๊ธฐ ์ž‘ ์— ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚˜๋Š” ๋„์ƒ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๊ด€๋… ๋ฐ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๊ณผ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ์˜๋ก€์ ์ธ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์„ ๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Œ์„ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ถˆํ™”์—๋Š” ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์—์„œ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธ์‹ ์ธ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๋ฅผ ์ฃผ์ œ๋กœ ํ•œ ๊ธฐ์กด ํƒ•์นด๋“ค๊ณผ ์ฐจ๋ณ„ํ™”๋˜๋Š” ๋…ํŠนํ•œ ์š”์†Œ๋“ค์ด ๋“ฑ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค. 12์„ธ๊ธฐ์— ์‚ฌ๊บ„ํŒŒ(sa-skya-pa)์˜ ์‚ฌ์ฒธ ๋€๊ฐ€ ๋‹๋ฝ€(sa chen kun dga' snying po, 1092-1158)์— ์˜ํ•ด ์“ฐ์ธ ใ€Ž๋‘๋ฅด ํ‡ด ๋‹ฅ๋ฝ€ ์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜(dur khrod bdag po'i sgrub skor bzhugs so)ใ€์˜ ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ์ถฉ์‹คํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•œ ์ด๋ฅธ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์˜ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋ถˆํ™”์—์„œ, ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๋Š” ์†Œ๋ผ๊ณ ๋‘ฅ์„ ๋ฐŸ์€ ์ฑ„ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์— ํƒ€์˜ค๋ฅด๋Š” ์ง€ํ˜œ์˜ ํ™”์—ผ์„ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์œผ๋กœ ์ถค์ถ”๋Š” ๋ชจ์Šต์œผ๋กœ ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์—์„œ๋Š” ์†Œ๋ผ๊ณ ๋‘ฅ๊ณผ ํ™”์—ผ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ ๋Œ€์‹  ์ „๊ฐ ๋„์ƒ์ด ๋ถˆํ™” ์ค‘์•™์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„๋‹ค. ์ด ์ „๊ฐ ์ƒ๋‹จ์—๋Š” ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด[์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ](ลšrฤซ Heruka/Cakrasaแนƒvara, 'khor lo bde mchog)์™€ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ๋ฐ”๋ผํžˆ[๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ](Vajravฤrฤhฤซ/Vajrayoginฤซ, rdo rje rnal 'byor ma)๊ฐ€ ์ƒ์œ„ ๋ณธ์กด์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐฐ์น˜๋˜๋ฉฐ, ๊ทธ ์ฃผ์œ„๋กœ๋Š” ์ •์ฒด๊ฐ€ ๋ถˆ๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•œ ๋‚˜์ฒด์˜ ์ธ๊ฐ„ ํ˜•์ƒ์ด ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋„์ƒ ๋ณ€ํ™”์˜ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์„ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ฒซ์งธ๋กœ ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ โ€˜๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ(แธฤkinฤซ, mkha' 'gro ma)์˜ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผ์ง€โ€™์™€ โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ(ล›mฤล›ฤna, dur khrod, charnel ground)โ€™ ๊ด€๋…์„, ๋‘˜์งธ๋กœ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ธ โ€˜์ฌ(gcod)โ€™๋ฅผ, ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค์ด ์‹ค์ œ๋กœ ๊ณต์—ฐ๋˜๋Š” ๋ถˆ๊ต ์˜๋ก€์ธ โ€˜์ฐธ('cham)โ€™์„ ๊ฒ€ํ† ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์ค‘์•™์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์ „๊ฐ์€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผํ•˜๋Š” ์žฅ์†Œ, โ€˜์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜(Oแธแธiyฤna)โ€™๋ฅผ ์ƒ์ง•ํ™”ํ•œ ๊ถ์ „์ผ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋†’๋‹ค. ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜๋Š” ๋Œ€์Šน ๋ถˆ๊ต์™€ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ๋ถˆ๊ต์˜ ์‹ค์žฌํ•˜๋Š” ์ˆœ๋ก€์ง€์ž„๊ณผ ๋™์‹œ์—, ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๋ฐœ์ „๊ณผ ๋”๋ถˆ์–ด ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๊ด€๋…ํ™”๋œ โ€˜์„ฑ์ง€(Pฤซแนญhฤ)โ€™์ด์ž โ€˜๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ์˜ ์ •ํ† โ€™๋กœ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์กŒ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ ํŒŒ๋“œ๋งˆ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ฐ”์˜ ์ •ํ† ๋„ ํ˜น์€ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์˜ ์ •ํ† ๋„๋Š” ๊ด€๋…์ ์ธ ์„ฑ์ง€๋กœ์„œ์˜ ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ์ด ๊นŠ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๋‘ ์ •ํ† ๋Š” ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์ด ๊ฑฐ์ฃผํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋ฐ์„œ ๊ณตํ†ต์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ ๋ถˆ๊ต๋ฏธ์ˆ ์—์„œ ์ •ํ† ๋„๋Š” ์ฃผ์กด์ด ๋‹ค์Šค๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ถ๊ถ์„ ๋ถˆํ™” ์ค‘์•™์— ํฌ๊ฒŒ ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌํ•˜๋Š” ํ˜•์‹์„ ์ทจํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์˜ ์ „๊ฐ ๋˜ํ•œ ์ •ํ† ๋„์— ๊ด€์Šต์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง€๋Š” ๊ถ๊ถ ๋ˆ„๊ฐ์œผ๋กœ ํ•ด์„๋  ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฐ๋ฐ ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์—์„œ ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ์˜ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผ์ง€๋Š” ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๋ผ๊ณ  ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์ง€๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธ์‹ ์ธ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธํ•˜๋Š” ๊ณต๊ฐ„๊ณผ ๊ด€๋…์ ์œผ๋กœ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์˜ ์ฃผ์กด์ธ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์™€ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์˜ ๊ถ์ „์€ ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์˜ ์„ค์‚ฐ์— ์œ„์น˜ํ•œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์กŒ๋‹ค. ใ€Ž์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผใ€์˜ 24๊ณณ์˜ ์„ฑ์ง€ ๊ฐ€์šด๋ฐ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ ์œ ํ˜•์— ๊ฑฐ์ฃผํ•˜๋Š” ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์˜ ์ •์ˆ˜๋“ค(four essence yoginis)์€ ์ด ๋‘ ๋ณธ์กด์„ ์‚ฌ๊ฐํ˜•์œผ๋กœ ๋‘˜๋Ÿฌ์‹ผ ๋ชจ์Šต์œผ๋กœ ํ˜•์ƒํ™”๋œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์ด ์‚ฌ๊ฐํ˜•์˜ ๋ฐ”๊นฅ์ชฝ์œผ๋กœ, โ€˜8๊ฐœ์˜ ์œ„๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ(aแนฃแนญamahฤล›mฤล›ฤna, dur khrod chen po brgyad)โ€™๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธํ•˜๋Š” ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์ด ๋งŒ๋‹ค๋ผ๋ฅผ ๊ทธ๋ฌผ์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ ์—์›Œ์‹ธ๋Š”(saแนvaแน›a) ํ˜•ํƒœ๋ฅผ ๋งŒ๋“ค์–ด๋‚ธ๋‹ค(แธฤkinฤซjฤla). ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์˜ ์ „๊ฐ์€ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์ƒ์ง•ํ•˜๋Š” ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์˜ ๊ถ๊ถ ๋ˆ„๊ฐ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์ด๋ฉฐ, ์ด ํƒ•์นด์˜ ์ œ์ž‘์ž ๋ฐ ๊ด€๋žŒ์ž๋Š” ์ „๊ฐ ์ƒ๋‹จ์— ๋ฐฐ์น˜๋œ ๋‘ ๋ณธ์กด ์ฃผ์œ„๋กœ ์ˆ˜๋งŽ์€ ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋“ค์ด ๋‘˜๋Ÿฌ์‹ผ ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ ๋งŒ๋‹ค๋ผ๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ƒํ•˜์˜€์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์กฐ์žฅ(้ณฅ่‘ฌ)ํ„ฐ์™€ ์ธ๊ฐ„์˜ ํ˜•์ƒ์€ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ๋“ฑ ๊ณตํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ถˆ๋Ÿฌ์ผ์œผํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ณ ๋ฆฝ๋œ ์žฅ์†Œ(dben sa)๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ฒ˜๋กœ ํ™œ์šฉํ•œ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ธ ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ๋ฌ˜์ง€๋Š” ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๊ฐ€ ์•„๋‹Œ ์กฐ์žฅํ„ฐ์ด๋ฏ€๋กœ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์—ญํ• ์€ ๋‹จ์ˆœํžˆ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ˜ธํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ํ•œ์ •๋˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค. ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ์‹ ์•™๊ณผ ์ฌ์˜ ์ „ํ†ต์€ ๋ฐ€์ ‘ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ ๋งบ๊ณ  ๋ฐœ์ „ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์˜ˆ์ปจ๋Œ€ ์ฌ์˜ ์ฐฝ์‹œ์ž์ธ ๋งˆ์ฐ ๋ž๋œ(ma gcig lab sgron, 1055-1149)์„ ๊ทธ๋ฆฐ ์ด‰์‹ฑ(tshogs zhing) ํ•˜๋‹จ์—๋Š” ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง€๋ฉฐ, ์ฌ์˜ ์ฃผ์กด์€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ƒ์œ„ ๋ณธ์กด์ธ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ๋„์ƒ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๋™์‹œ๋Œ€์˜ ์ž‘ํ’ˆ์˜ ํ•˜๋‹จ์—๋Š” ์ฌ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž๋กœ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž๋“ค์ด ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌ๋œ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ ์ฌ์˜ ํ•„์ˆ˜ ์ ˆ์ฐจ์ธ โ€˜์˜์‹์˜ ์ „์ด('pho ba)โ€™ ๊ด€์ƒ๋ฒ•์€ 18์„ธ๊ธฐ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ํƒ•์นด๋“ค์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์ธ๊ฐ„์˜ ํ˜•์ƒ๋“ค๊ณผ ์ง์ ‘์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋œ๋‹ค. ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์˜ ๋ณดํŽธ์ ์ธ ๊ด€์ƒ๋ฒ•์˜ ํ‹€์ธ ์–‘ ์ฐจ์ œ ๊ฐ€์šด๋ฐ ์›๋งŒ์ฐจ์ œ(ๅœ“ๆปฟๆฌก็ฌฌ, rdzogs rim)์— ์˜๊ฑฐํ•˜๋ฉด, ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž๋Š” ๋ณธ๋ž˜์˜ ์œก์ฒด ๋Œ€์‹  ํ™˜์‹ (ๅนป่บซ, sgyu lus)์„ ์–ป๋Š”๋‹ค. ์ฌ์—์„œ ์ด ํ™˜์‹ ์€ ์ •์ˆ˜๋ฆฌ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋น ์ ธ๋‚˜์™€ ์ฃผ์กด ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ์™€ ํ•ฉ์ผํ•˜๋Š” ์˜์‹๊ณผ ์ƒ์‘ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์—์„œ ํ•œ ํ˜•์ƒ์ด ์ง€๋ถ• ์œ„์— ๋–  ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค์€ โ€˜ํ•˜๋Š˜์„ ๋‚˜๋Š” ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ(khecaratva)โ€™์„ ์ง€๋…”์œผ๋ฉฐ โ€˜๊ณต์„ฑ(็ฉบๆ€ง)โ€™ ๊ทธ ์ž์ฒด๋กœ๋„ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์ง„ ๋‹คํ‚ค๋‹ˆ๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ƒํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜๋Š” ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์ธ ์ธ์‹ ์ฒด๊ณ„์™€๋„ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง„ ์ธ๊ฐ„์˜ ํ˜•์ƒ์€ ์œก์‹ ์—์„œ ๋น ์ ธ๋‚˜์˜จ ์ฌ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ž์˜ ์˜์‹์ผ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ์ถฉ๋ถ„ํ•˜๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์— ๊ทธ๋ ค์ง€๋Š” ์‹ ์˜ ์ถค์€ โ€˜์กฐ๋ณต('dul ba)โ€™์ด๋ผ๋Š” ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ์˜๋ก€์ ์ธ ๊ด€์ ๊ณผ ๊ฒฐ๋ถ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ํ•ด์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ใ€Ž๋‘๋ฅด ํ‡ด ๋‹ฅ๋ฝ€ ์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€์—์„œ๋Š” ์‹ ์˜ ์ถค์ด ์•…๊ท€๋ฅผ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ์–ธ๊ธ‰ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฐธ ์˜๋ก€์—์„œ ๊ด€์ •(็Œ้ ‚) ์˜์‹์„ ๊ฑฐ์นœ ํ›„ ์‹ค์ œ๋กœ ๊ณต์—ฐ๋˜๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•˜๋Š” ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค์€ ๋ง๊ฐ€(liแน…ga)๋ผ๊ณ  ๋ถˆ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์•…ํ•œ ์กฐํ˜•๋ฌผ์„ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•˜๋Š” ์—ญํ• ์„ ๋‹ด๋‹นํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ง๊ฐ€๋Š” ํžŒ๋‘๊ต์—์„œ ์‹œ๋ฐ”์‹ ์˜ ํ‘œ์ƒ์ด์—ˆ์œผ๋‚˜, ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ ์˜๋ก€์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ถ€์ •์ ์ด๊ณ  ์•…ํ•œ ํŠน์งˆ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ง๊ฐ€์˜ โ€˜์ฒ˜ํ˜•โ€™์„ ํ†ตํ•ด โ€˜ํ•ด๋ฐฉโ€™์„ ๋ฐ”๋ผ๋Š” ์˜์‹์€ ์ฐธ์˜ ํ•ต์‹ฌ ์ ˆ์ฐจ์ด๋‹ค. ์ฒ˜ํ˜•๊ณผ ํ•ด๋ฐฉ์€ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ๋ฌธํ—Œ์˜ ์ค‘์‹ฌ ์„œ์‚ฌ์ด๋‹ค. 8์„ธ๊ธฐ ์ด๋ž˜ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ ๋ถˆ๊ต์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผํŒŒ๋‹ˆ๊ฐ€ ํ˜„ํ˜„ํ•œ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด๊ฐ€ ์‹œ๋ฐ” ํ˜น์€ ๊ทธ์˜ ํ™”์‹ ์„ ์ฒ˜ํ˜•ํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ถˆ๊ต์˜ ๋งŒ๋‹ค๋ผ๋กœ ๊ท€์†์‹œ์ผฐ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋‚ด์šฉ์ด ํ”ํžˆ ๋“ฑ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค. 17์„ธ๊ธฐ์— ์“ฐ์ธ ใ€Ž์ฐธ์˜ ์ง€์นจ์„œ('chams yig)ใ€์—์„œ๋„ ์ฐธ์˜ ๋ชฉ์ ์— ๋Œ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด๊ฐ€ ๋ฃจ๋“œ๋ผ(Rudra)๋ฅผ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•˜๋Š” ๊ณผ์ •์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ๋ช…์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ์‹œ๋ฐ”์˜ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ด๋ฆ„์ธ ๋ฃจ๋“œ๋ผ๋Š” โ€˜๋‹จ๋„์˜ ์†Œ์ง€์žโ€™๋กœ์„œ์˜ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด๋ฅผ ๋œปํ•˜๋Š” โ€˜๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผํ‚ฌ๋ผ์•ผ(Vajrakilaya)โ€™ ์˜๋ก€ ์ „ํ†ต์—์„œ ์กฐํ˜•๋ฌผ์ธ ๋ง๊ฐ€๋กœ ์‹œ๊ฐํ™”๋˜์–ด ๋‹จ๋„์— ์˜ํ•ด ์ฒ˜ํ˜•๋œ๋‹ค. ๋“ฑ์žฅ์ธ๋ฌผ์ด ๊ฑฐ์˜ ํ˜ธ๋ฒ•์‹ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋œ ์ฐธ์—์„œ ๋ง๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ์กฐ๋ณตํ•˜๋Š” ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค์ด ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์˜ ์—ญํ• ์„ ๋Œ€์‹ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค์€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๊ฐ€ ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์˜ ๊ณ„๋ณด์— ์†ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋œ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ์—์„œ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ƒ์œ„ ์‹ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ๊ฐ€ ๋ฐฐ์น˜๋œ ๊ฒƒ์€ ๋ฐ”์ด๋ผ๋ฐ”์—์„œ ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ[ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด]๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง€๋Š” ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ ๋ถˆ๊ต ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹ โ€™ ๊ณ„๋ณด๋ฅผ ์•”์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ—ค๋ฃจ์นด์˜ ๊ธฐ์›์€ ์นดํŒ”๋ฆฌ์นด(Kฤpฤlika) ์ „ํ†ต์˜ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹ , ์ฆ‰ ๋ฐ”์ด๋ผ๋ฐ”(Bhairava)์˜ ์ด๋ฆ„๊ณผ ํ˜•ํƒœ๋ฅผ ๋นผ์•—์€ ๊ฒƒ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋˜๋Š”๋ฐ, 8์„ธ๊ธฐ ์ดํ›„ ์‹œ๋ฐ”๊ต์˜ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์„ ์ด๋ฃฌ ๋ฐ”์ด๋ผ๋ฐ” ์‹ ์•™์€ ๋ถˆ๊ต ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์— ๋ง‰๋Œ€ํ•œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ผ์ณค๋‹ค. ์ฌ๋ผ๋Š” ์‹ค์ œ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์˜ ์ฃผ์กด์ด ์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผ์˜ ๋ฐฐ์šฐ์ž์ธ ๋ฐ”์ฆˆ๋ผ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆ๋ผ๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค ๋˜ํ•œ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ƒ์œ„ ๋ณธ์กด ์ •๋ฆฝ๊ณผ ํฐ ๊ด€๋ จ์ด ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ใ€Ž๋‘๋ฅด ํ‡ด ๋‹ฅ๋ฝ€ ์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€๋ฅผ ์ €์ˆ ํ•œ ์‚ฌ์ฒธ ๋€๊ฐ€ ๋‹๋ฝ€๋Š” โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ ์‹ ์•™โ€™์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๋Š” ์š”๊ธฐ๋‹ˆํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ โ€˜ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹ โ€™ ๊ณ„๋ณด๋ฅผ ์—ผ๋‘์— ๋‘๊ณ  ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜์šฉํ•˜์˜€์Œ์— ํ‹€๋ฆผ์—†๋‹ค. ์ด์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ, ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ ๋Š” ์ƒ์œ„ ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ๊ด€๋… ๋ฐ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๊ณผ ์˜๋ก€์ ์ธ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์ด ๋ณตํ•ฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ต์ฐจํ•  ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ํ‹ฐ๋ฒ ํŠธ์ธ๋“ค์˜ ๋ฌ˜์ง€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ธ์‹์„ ์ข…ํ•ฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์ž‘๋ก€์ด๋‹ค.โ… . ์„œ๋ก  1 โ…ก. ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋„์ƒ๊ณผ ใ€Ž์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€ 11 2.1 ๋ฃจ๋นˆ๋ฏธ์ˆ ๊ด€ ์†Œ์žฅ 11 2.2 ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋„์ƒ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”์™€ ใ€Ž์‚ฌ๋‹ค๋‚˜ใ€ 17 โ…ข. ์ „๊ฐ๊ณผ ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ 24 3.1 ํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผ์˜ ์„ฑ์ง€, ์šฐ๋””์•ผ๋‚˜์™€ ์ •ํ† ๋„ 24 3.2 ใ€Ž์ฐจํฌ๋ผ์‚ผ๋ฐ”๋ผํƒ„ํŠธ๋ผใ€์˜ ์„ฑ์ง€์™€ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ 34 โ…ฃ. ์ฌ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๊ณผ ๋„์ƒ์  ๋ฐ˜์˜ 43 4.1 ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ์‹ ์•™๊ณผ ๋ฌ˜์ง€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ 43 4.2 18์„ธ๊ธฐ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ ๋ถˆํ™”์˜ ์ธ๊ฐ„ ํ˜•์ƒ 51 โ…ค. ์ฐธ ์˜๋ก€์™€ ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค 58 5.1 ์น˜ํ‹ฐํŒŒํ‹ฐ์˜ ์ถค 58 5.2 ํ™”์žฅํ„ฐ์˜ ์‹  ๊ณ„๋ณด์˜ ์ „์Šน 65 โ…ฅ. ๊ฒฐ๋ก  74 ์ฐธ๊ณ ๋ฌธํ—Œ 77 ๋„ํŒ๋ชฉ๋ก 89 ๋„ํŒ 94 Abstract 123์„
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