18 research outputs found
Three Essays on Digital Trade
ํ์๋
ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ์ฌ)--์์ธ๋ํ๊ต ๋ํ์ :๊ตญ์ ๋ํ์ ๊ตญ์ ํ๊ณผ(๊ตญ์ ํต์์ ๊ณต),2019. 8. ์๋๊ทผ.Digital technologies have transformed the pattern of international trade into digital one. This thesis defines digital trade as cross-border transactions of goods and services through electronic means including cross-border data flows. Against this backdrop, it aims at finding ways to accommodate digital trade liberalization under the current world trading regime led by the World Trade Organization (WTO).
To begin with, it is paramount to establish the principle of technological neutrality in order to render cross-border trade in digital services subject to a rules-based international regulatory framework. Several outstanding digital trade issues in the WTO Work Programme on Electronic Commerce may be addressed by the principle. For instance, it becomes clear that GATS rules are applicable to services delivered online. Moreover, it plays a pivotal role in determining likeness between conventional services and
electronically-delivered services, which is crucial for non-discrimination analysis. Last but not least, the principle provides for an important theoretical ground to interpret GATS schedules in a flexible manner as technology advances.
The issue of technological neutrality was raised both in US โ Gambling and China โ Audiovisuals. Yet panels and the Appellate Body avoided their rulings on the issue. It was attributed to the fact that consensus was not reached among WTO Members over the principle and the matter at issue was sensitive cultural products. However, it is of great importance to firmly establish the principle of technological neutrality to secure predictability and legal certainty under the world trading regime. In this light, this thesis proposes ways to incorporate the principle of technological neutrality into the multilateral regulatory framework at the bilateral, plurilateral, and multilateral levels.
The seamless transfer of data across borders is indispensable for digital trade liberalization. Nonetheless, restrictive measures on cross-border data flows (CBDF) are rising around the world, hampering trade in digital services. This thesis also examines this issue from legal and economic perspectives.
Domestic restrictions on CBDF can be categorized into: horizontal and sectoral approaches by the scope of regulation; location-based and risk-based approaches by the conditions of regulation. The econometric analysis using the gravity model and Digital Trade Restrictiveness Index (DTRI) as a main variable shows that restrictions on CBDF not only serve as digital trade barriers but also impede technological innovation,
discouraging the exports of services. Moreover, services trade flows are limited between trading partners with heterogeneous data policies. It necessitates an internationally agreed regulatory framework for data flows.
Issues relevant to CBDF should be addressed in the WTO, the most unique multilateral institution governing international trade affairs. This thesis proposes several suggestions to facilitate the free movement and usage of data: scheduling horizontal commitments allowing CBDF; adopting a data-differentiated approach; stablishing minimum standards for personal data protection; and elaborating the language of legitimate public policy objectives.
It is the audiovisual service sector that is undergoing significant changes due to the development of computer technology and information communication technology. The distinction between computer and related services, telecommunication services, and audiovisual services, which are rather clear in the GATS classification scheme, has increasingly blurred due to technological convergence. Although the cross-border transaction of over-the-top (OTT) video streaming services through digital networks are rapidly growing, the old GATS classification scheme produces more confusion. Different views between the European Union (EU) and the United States (US) on market opening for audiovisual services have led to a clash over the OTT video streaming sector. This thesis examines the negotiation strategies of the two powerhouses with respect to OTT video streaming services and draws lessons for Korea.
The EU takes a negotiation strategy to strictly distinguish broadcasting from telecommunication services or computer and related services and to carve out audiovisual services from trade talks in the name of exception culturelle. In the meantime, the EU imposes content quotas on all types of OTT video streming services. It is conceivable that, during services negotiations, the EU is to classify OTT video streaming services as audiovisual services, taking the sector off the negotiation table. On the other hand, the US has been an ardent supporter of trade liberalization in audiovisual services. It is found that the US tries to break down audiovisual services into content production and transmission componentes, then pursuing a great extent of liberalization in a
transmission-related aspect of audiovisual services. Furthermore, it came up with new categories of information services and other communication services, which possibly include OTT video streaming services at the Doh Round. Recent US domestic media governance reforms separate non-linear services from linear services to take a laissezfaire approach toward non-linear OTT video streaming services. It is envisaged that the
US is to take a negotiation strategy of separating OTT video streaming services from audiovisual services, requesting full commitments to a negotiating counterpart.
Korean trade negotiators and media policymakers should be aware of these differences in negotiation strategies of the EU and the US to respond properly. On top of that, trade policies with respect to the cultural industry must be led in the direction of effectively promoting the competitiveness of Korean cultural industries.
There is a mounting concern on digital trade-restrictive measures around the globe as the size of digital trade and economic repercussion are growing. Thus the importance of an international regulatory framework governing digital trade is getting highlighted. The rules and disciplines of the WTO established in the analogue age, however, are not perfectly suitable for digital trade liberalization. The WTO has launched, in a right time,
plurilateral negotiations on trade-related aspects of electronic commerce to deal with digital trade-relevant issues. We hope this thesis contribute to reinforcing the predictability and legal certainty in the world trading regime with regard to digital trade by helping interpret traditional trade rules in a flexible way and make up any deficiency.๋์งํธ๊ธฐ์ ์ ๋ฐ๋ฌ๋ก ๊ตญ์ ๋ฌด์ญ์ ์์์ด ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ ์ค์ฌ์ผ๋ก ๋ณ๋ชจํ๊ณ ์๋ค. ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์์๋ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ์ ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ํฌํจํ์ฌ ์ ์์ ์๋จ์ ํตํด ์ด๋ฃจ์ด์ง๋ ์ํ ๋ฐ ์๋น์ค์ ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ๋๋ก ํญ๋๊ฒ ์ ์ํ๋ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ์ธ๊ณ๋ฌด์ญ๊ธฐ๊ตฌ(WTO)๋ฅผ ์ค์ฌ์ผ๋ก ํ ๋ค์ํต์์ฒด์ ๋ด์์ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ ์์ ํ๋ฅผ ์ด๋ฃจ๊ธฐ ์ํ ๋ฐฉ์์ ๋ชจ์ํ๋ค.
๋์งํธ์๋น์ค์ ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฌด์ญ์ ๋ฒ์ ์ง๋ฐฐ์ ๊ธฐ์ดํ ๊ตญ์ ํต์๊ท๋ฒ์ผ๋ก ๊ท์จํ๊ธฐ ์ํด์๋ ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ ์์น์ ์ฐ์ ์ ์ผ๋ก ํ๊ณ ํ ์ ๋ฆฝํด์ผ ํ๋ค. ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ ์์น์ ํตํด ๊ทธ๋์ WTO ์ ์์๊ฑฐ๋ ์์
๊ณํ์์ ๋
ผ์๋์๋ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ์ ์์ ์ ์๋น๋ถ๋ถ ํด์ํ ์ ์๋ค. ์ฐ์ , ์ ์์ ์๋จ์ ํตํด ์ ์ก๋๋ ์๋น์ค์ ์๋น์ค๋ฌด์ญํ์ (GATS)์ ์ ์ฉํ ์ ์๋ค๋ ์ ์ด
๋ถ๋ช
ํด์ง๋ค. ๋ํ ๋น์ฐจ๋ณ์์น์ ์ ์ฉ์ ์์ ์ ํต์ ์๋จ์ผ๋ก ์ ๊ณต๋๋ ์๋น์ค์ ์ ์์ ์ผ๋ก ์ ์ก๋๋ ์๋น์ค๊ฐ ๋์ข
์ฑ ํ๋จ์ด ๊ฐ๋ฅํด์ง๋ค. ๋ง์ง๋ง์ผ๋ก GATS ์ํํ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ์ ๋ฐ์ ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ์ ์ฐํ๊ฒ ํด์ํ๋๋ฐ ์์ด ์ค์ํ ์ด๋ก ์
๊ทผ๊ฑฐ๊ฐ ํ๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.
US-Gambling ์ฌ๊ฑด๊ณผ China-Audiovisuals ์ฌ๊ฑด์์ ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ์ด ์์ ์ผ๋ก ์ ๊ธฐ๋์์ง๋ง WTO ์ ํจ๋๊ณผ ์์๊ธฐ๊ตฌ๋ ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ ์์น์ ๋ํ ํ๋จ์ ์ ๋ณดํ์๋ค. ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ ์์น์ ๋ํด WTO ํ์๊ตญ ์ฌ์ด์ ์ปจ์ผ์์ค๊ฐ ํ์ฑ๋์ง ๋ชปํ์๊ณ ๋ฌธํ์ํ์ด๋ผ๋ ๋ฏผ๊ฐํ ๋ด์ฉ์ด ์ฌ๊ฑด์์ ๋ค๋ฃจ์ด์ก๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ธ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ํ์ด๋๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๋์งํธ ์๋์ ์ ์ฉ๋๋ ๊ตญ์ ํต์๊ท๋ฒ์ ์์ธก๊ฐ๋ฅ์ฑ ๋ฐ ๋ฒ์ ํ์ค์ฑ์ ํ๋ณดํ๊ธฐ ์ํด์๋ ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ ์์น์ด ๋ฌด์๋ณด๋ค ์ค์ํ๋ค. ์ด์ ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์ ์์๊ฐ ์ฐจ์, ๋ณต์๊ตญ๊ฐ ์ฐจ์, ๋ค์๊ฐ ์ฐจ์ ๋ฑ์ ํตํด ๊ตญ์ ํต์์ฒด์ ๋ด์ ๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋ฆฝ์ฑ ์์น์ ์ ๋ฆฝํ๋ ๋ฐฉ์์ ์ ์ํ๋ค.
๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ ์์ ํ๊ฐ ์ด๋ฃจ์ด์ง๊ธฐ ์ํด์๋ ์์ ๋ก์ด ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ด ํ์์ ์ด๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ ์ธ๊ณ์ ์ผ๋ก ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ํ์์ด์์ผ๋ก ์ ํํ๋ ์กฐ์น๊ฐ ์ทจํด์ง๊ณ ์์ด ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ์ด ์ ํด๋๋ ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ํ๋ค. ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์
๋๋ฒ์งธ ์ฅ์์๋ ์ด์ ๋ํ ํต์๋ฒ์ , ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ถ์์ ์งํํ๋ค. ๊ฐ๊ตญ์ ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ํ์กฐ์น๋ ๊ท์จ ๋ฒ์์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ์ผ๋ฐ์ ์ ๊ทผ๋ฐฉ์๊ณผ ๋ถ์ผ๋ณ ์ ๊ทผ๋ฐฉ์์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ๋ถํ ์ ์์ผ๋ฉฐ ๊ท์ ์ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ์ง๋ฆฌ์ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ ์ ๊ทผ๋ฐฉ์๊ณผ ์ํ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ ์ ๊ทผ๋ฐฉ์์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ๋ถํ ์ ์๋ค. ์ค๋ ฅ๋ชจํ๊ณผ ๋์งํธ์ ํ์ง์๋ฅผ ์ฃผ์ ๋ณ์๋ก ์ฌ์ฉํ ๊ณ๋๋ถ์ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ํ์กฐ์น๊ฐ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ์ฅ๋ฒฝ์ผ๋ก ์์ฉํ ๋ฟ๋ง ์๋๋ผ ๊ธฐ์ ํ์ ์ ์ ํดํ์ฌ ์๋น์ค์ ์์ถ์ ๊ฐ์์ํค๋ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ๋ํ๋ฌ๋ค. ๋ํ ์์ดํ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ๊ท์ ์์ค์ ์ ์งํ๋ ๊ตญ๊ฐ๊ฐ์๋ ์๋์ ์ผ๋ก ์๋น์ค๋ฌด์ญ๋์ด ์ ์ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ๋ํ๋ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ๊ดํด ๊ตญ์ ์ ์ผ๋ก ํต์ผ๋ ๊ท๋ฒ์ฒด๊ณ๊ฐ ํ์ํ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ๋ณด์ธ๋ค.
WTO ๋ ๊ตญ์ ๋ฌด์ญ๋ถ์ผ์ ์ ์ผํ ๋ค์๊ธฐ๊ตฌ์ด๋ฏ๋ก ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ๊ท๋ฒ๋ WTO ์ฒด์ ๋ด์์ ๋ค๋ฃจ์ด์ ธ์ผ ํ๋ค. ์์ ๋ก์ด ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ๊ณผ ํ์ฉ์ ์ด์งํ๋ ๊ตญ์ ํต์๊ท๋ฒ์ ์ ์ ํ๊ธฐ ์ํด ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์ GATS ์ํ์ ์ํ์ ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ๊ธฐ์ฌํ๋ ๋ฐฉ์, ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ข
๋ฅ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ์๋ก ๋ค๋ฅธ ์์ค์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ด์ ์ ํ์ฉํ๋ ๋ฐฉ์, ์ต์ํ์ ๊ฐ์ธ์ ๋ณด๋ณดํธ ๊ตญ์ ํ์ค์ ์ ์ ํ๋ ๋ฐฉ์, ๋ฐ์ดํฐ ์ ํ์กฐ์น๊ฐ ํ์ฉ๋๋ ์์ธ์ ์ธ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ๋ก์ ์ ๋ฒํ ๊ณต๊ณต์ ์ฑ
๋ชฉ์ ์ ๊ตฌ์ฒดํํ๋ ๋ฐฉ์์ ์ ์ํ๋ค.
์ปดํจํฐ๊ธฐ์ ๊ณผ ์ ๋ณดํต์ ๊ธฐ์ ์ ๋ฐ์ ์ผ๋ก ๊ฐ์ฅ ํฐ ๋ณํ๋ฅผ ๊ฒช๊ณ ์๋ ์๋น์ค ๋ถ์ผ๊ฐ ์์ฒญ๊ฐ์๋น์ค ๋ถ์ผ์ด๋ค. GATS ์๋น์ค ๋ถ๋ฅ์ฒด๊ณ์์๋ ๋ช
ํํ ๊ตฌ๋ถ๋๋ ์ปดํจํฐ๋ฐ๊ด๋ จ์๋น์ค, ํต์ ์๋น์ค, ์์ฒญ๊ฐ์๋น์ค์ ๊ตฌ๋ณ์ด ์ต๋ณตํฉ๊ธฐ์ ์ ๋ฐ๋ฌ๋ก ์ ์ ๋ชจํธํด์ง๊ณ ์๋ค. ํนํ ์ ํต์ ์ธ ๋ฐฉ์ก๋งค์ฒด๋ฅผ ํ์ฉํ์ง ์๋ ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ๊ฐ ์จ๋ผ์ธ ๋์์์ ๊ณต์๋น์ค(OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค)๊ฐ ๊ธ์๋๋ก ์ฑ์ฅํ๊ณ ์์ง๋ง WTO/GATS ์ฒด์ ๋ด์์๋ ์ด์ ๋ํ ๋ถ๋ฅ๊ฐ ๋ช
ํํ์ง ์์ ํผ๋์ด ๊ฐ์ค๋๋ ์ํฉ์ด๋ค. ํนํ ์์ฒญ๊ฐ์๋น์ค ์์ ํ์ ๋ํ EU์ ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์ ์ ํต์ ์ธ ์
์ฅ ์ฐจ์ด๊ฐ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค์ ์์ฅ๊ฐ๋ฐฉ์ ๋๋ฌ์ผ ๋
ผ์๋ก ์ด์ด์ง๊ณ ์๋ค. ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค ๋ถ์ผ์์ EU ์ ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์ ํ์์ ๋ต์ ํ์
ํ๊ณ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋๋ผ์ ๋ํ ์์ฌ์ ์ ๋์ถํ๋ค.
EU ๋ ์ฐ๋ฃจ๊ณผ์ด๋ผ์ด๋ ์ดํ ์ค๊ณง ์ปดํจํฐ์๋น์ค ๋๋ ํต์ ์๋น์ค์ ๋ฐฉ์ก์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ์๊ฒฉํ ๊ตฌ๋ถํ๊ณ ๋ฌธํ์์ธ๋ฅผ ๋ด์ธ์ ์์ฒญ๊ฐ(๋ฐฉ์ก)์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ๋ฌด์ญํ์ ๋
ผ์์์ ์ ์ธํ๋ ํ์์ ๋ต์ ํด๊ณ ์๋ค. ๋ํ EU ๋ ๋ชจ๋ ์ ํ์ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค์ ๊ตญ๋ด์์๋ฌผ ์ฟผํฐ๋ฅผ ๋ถ๊ณผํ๋ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ํ ๋๋ก ๋ณผ ๋, EU ๋ ํฅํ ํ์์์๋ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ์์ฒญ๊ฐ(๋ฐฉ์ก)์๋น์ค๋ก ๊ฐ์ฃผํ์ฌ ์ด๋ฅผ ์ํํ์ง ์๋ ์ ๋ต์ ์ทจํ ๊ฐ๋ฅ์ฑ์ด ํฌ๋ค. ์ด์ ๋ฐํด, ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์ ์์ฒญ๊ฐ์๋น์ค์ ์์ ํ๋ฅผ ์ ๊ทน ์นํธํ๋ ์
์ฅ์ผ๋ก ์์ฒญ๊ฐ์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ์์๋ฌผ ์ ์๊ณผ ์ ์ก์ผ๋ก ์ธ๋ถํํ์ฌ ์ ์ก์ ๊ด๋ จ๋ ์๋น์ค๋ ์ต๋ํ ๊ฐ๋ฐฉํ๋ค๋ ๋ชฉํ๋ฅผ ์ธ์ด ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก
ํ์
๋๋ค. ๋ํ ๋ํ๋ผ์ด๋์์ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ํฌํจํ๋ ๊ธฐํ ์ปค๋ฎค๋์ผ์ด์
์๋น์ค๋ผ๋ ์๋ก์ด ๋ถ๋ฅ์ฒด๊ณ๋ฅผ ๋์
ํ๋ ์ ๋ต์ ์๋ฆฝํ๋ค. ๊ตญ๋ด์ ์ผ๋ก๋ ์ ํ(linear) ์๋น์ค์ ๋น์ ํ(non-linear) ์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ๊ตฌ๋ถํ์ฌ ๋น์ ํ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค์ ๋ํ ๊ท์ ๋ฅผ ์ํํ์๋ค. ํฅํ ๋ฌด์ญํ์์์๋ ๋น์ ํ OTT ๋์์์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ์ ํต์ ์ธ ์์ฒญ๊ฐ์๋น์ค์์ ์ ์ธํ์ฌ ์ด์ ๋ํ ์ ๋ฉด์ ์ธ ์์ฅ๊ฐ๋ฐฉ ์ํ๋ฅผ ํ์์๋๋ฐฉ์๊ฒ ์๊ตฌํ๋ ์ ๋ต์ ์ค์ํ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ์์๋๋ค.
์ฐ๋ฆฌ ํต์ํ์๊ฐ๋ค๊ณผ ๊ตญ๋ด ๋ฏธ๋์ด์ ์ฑ
๊ฒฐ์ ์๋ค์ EU ์ ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์ ์ด๋ฌํ ํ์์ ๋ต์ ์ฐจ์ด๋ฅผ ํ์
ํ๊ณ ์ด์ ๋์ํ๋ฉด์ ๊ฐ๋ฐฉ์ ํตํด ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ฌธํ์ฐ์
์ ๊ฒฝ์๋ ฅ์ ํค์ฐ๋ ๋ฐฉํฅ์ผ๋ก ํต์์ ์ฑ
์ ํผ์ณ์ผ ํ๋ค.
๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ์ ๊ท๋ชจ์ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์ํฅ๋ ฅ์ด ์ปค์ง๋ฉด์ ์๋ก์ด ์ ํ์ ๋ฌด์ญ์ ํ์กฐ์น์ธ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ์ฅ๋ฒฝ๋ค์ด ๋ฑ์ฅํ๊ณ ์๋ค. ์ด์ ๋์งํธํต์๊ท๋ฒ์ ์ค์์ฑ์ด ๋์ฑ ๋ถ๊ฐ๋๊ณ ์์ง๋ง ์๋ ๋ก๊ทธ ์๋์ ๋ง๋ค์ด์ง WTO/GATS ๊ท๋ฒ๋ง์ผ๋ก๋ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ ์์ ํ๋ฅผ ์๋ฒฝํ ์ด๋ฃจ์ด๋ด๊ธฐ ์ด๋ ต๋ค. ๋๋ง์นจ WTO ๋ณต์๊ตญ๊ฐ ์ ์์๊ฑฐ๋ ํ์์ด ๋ณธ๊ฒฉ์ ์ผ๋ก ์์๋์ด ์๋ก์ด ๋
ผ์์ ์ฅ์ด ์ด๋ ธ๋ค. ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์ด ์ ํต์ ์ธ ํต์๊ท๋ฒ์ ์ ์ฐํ๊ฒ ํด์ํ๊ณ ๋ฏธ๋น์ ์ ๋ณด์ํ์ฌ ๊ธฐ์กด์ ๊ตญ์ ํต์์ฒด์ ๋ด์์ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ๊ณผ ๊ด๋ จ๋ ์์ธก๊ฐ๋ฅ์ฑ๊ณผ ๋ฒ์ ํ์ค์ฑ์ ํ๋ณดํ๋๋ฐ ๊ณตํํ ์ ์๊ธธ ๋ฐ๋๋ค.Chapter I Introduction 1
1. Motivation and Scope 1
2. Methodology and Structure 4
Chapter II Technological Neutrality as a Bridge between the Analogue Trading Regime and Digital Trade 6
1. Introduction 6
2. Overview of the GATS 10
2.1. Scope of the GATS 10
2.2. Mode of Supply 12
2.3. General Obligations: Most-Favoured-Nation and Transparency 13
2.4. Specific Commitments: Market Access and National Treatment 13
2.5. Schedules of Commitments for Market Access and National Treatment 15
3. Overview of Technological Neutrality in the World Trading Regime 16
3.1. Definition of Technological Neutrality 16
3.2. Historical Development of Technological Neutrality 19
4. Technological Neutrality, Digital Trade, and the GATS 23
4.1. Applicability of GATS Rules to the Delivery of Services by Electronic Means 24
4.1.1. Growing Consensus among WTO Members 25
4.1.2. WTO Jurisprudence 29
4.2. Determination of Likeness in the Era of Digital Trade 33
4.2.1. Non-Discrimination and Likeness in the GATS 34
4.2.2. Likeness of Services in the Digital Age 37
4.2.3. The Principle of Technological Neutrality in Determining Likeness in the Digital Era 40
4.2.4. WTO Jurisprudence 43
4.3. Evolutionary Interpretation of the GATS Schedules of Commitments 46
4.3.1. General Rule of Treaty Interpretation in WTO Dispute Settlement 47
4.3.2. Evolutionary Interpretation and the Principle of Technological Neutrality 49
4.3.3. WTO Jurisprudence 52
4.4. Why Would the WTO Adjudicators Maintain Strategical Neutrality on Technological Neutrality? 54
5. A Way Forward to Embracing the Principle of Technological Neutrality in the World Trading System 56
5.1. At the Bilateral and Regional Level 56
5.2. At the Plurilateral Level 60
5.3. At the Multilateral Level 63
6. Concluding Remarks 64
Chapter III Cross-Border Data Flows and Trade Agreements 72
1. Introduction 72
2. Understanding of the Restrictive Measures on Cross-Border Data Flows 75
2.1. Definition of Notion 75
2.2. Data Policies at a Glance 76
2.3. Case Studies 80
2.3.1. Horizontal and Risk-Based Approach (Type I) 80
2.3.2. Horizontal and Location-Based Approach (Type II) 85
2.3.3. Sectoral and Location-Based Approach (Type III) 87
2.3.4. Sectoral and Risk-Based Approach (Type IV) 93
3. Empirical Study on the Impact of Regulatory Policies on Cross-Border Data Flows on Trade in Services 94
3.1. Introduction 94
3.2. Conceptual Framework 96
3.3. Estimating Methodology and Data Description 98
3.3.1. Model Specification 98
3.3.2. Data Description 102
3.4. Estimation Results and Discussion 105
4. The Role of Trade Agreements in Eliminating Barriers to Cross-Border Data Flows 109
4.1. Historical Development of International Rules on Cross-Border Data Flows 110
4.2. WTO Rules Are Comprehensive, Substantial, Flexible and Effective 114
4.2.1. Comprehensive Membership and Subjects 115
4.2.2. Substantial Rules for Trade Liberalization 116
4.2.3. Flexible Application in Exceptional Circumstances 117
4.2.4. Effective Dispute Settlement 118
4.3. Relevant WTO Rules on Cross-Border Data Flows and Challenges to the WTO 119
4.3.1. General Obligations and Disciplines, and Specific Commitments of the GATS 120
4.3.2. Annex on Telecommunications 123
4.3.3. General Exceptions and National Security Exceptions 124
4.3.4. Challenges Facing the Brick-and-Mortar WTO in the Era of a Data-Driven Economy 127
4.4. Emerging Rules on Cross-Border Data Flows in Regional Trade Agreements 129
4.4.1. Allowing the Cross-Border Free Flows of Information 130
4.4.2. Banning Data Localization Requirements 133
4.4.3. Utilizing Government Data 135
5. Suggestions to Upcoming WTO Negotiations on Trade-Related Aspects of Electronic Commerce 137
5.1. Scheduling Horizontal Commitments Allowing Cross-Border Data Flows 138
5.2. Adopting a Data-Differentiated Approach 139
5.3. Establishing Minimum Standards for Personal Data Protection 141
5.4. Elaborating the Language of Legitimate Public Policy Objectives 143
6. Concluding Remarks 146
Chapter IV Over-the-Top Video Streaming Services and Trade Negotiations 152
1. Introduction 152
2. Stock-taking of the Linear or Non-Linear Over-the-Top Video Streaming Services 155
3. Over-the-Top Video Streaming Services in the GATS Context 159
3.1. Computer and Related Services 160
3.1.1. Classification Scheme 160
3.1.2. GATS Commitments 162
3.2. Telecommunication services 163
3.2.1. Classification Scheme 164
3.2.2. GATS Commitments 166
3.3. Audiovisual Services 170
3.3.1. Classification Scheme 171
3.3.2. GATS Commitments 172
4. EU and US Approaches to Over-the-Top Video Streaming Services at the Trade Negotiation Fora 173
4.1. EU Approach 174
4.1.1. At the International Level 174
4.1.2. At the Domestic Level 180
4.2. US Approach 184
4.2.1. At the International Level 184
4.2.2. At the Domestic Level 194
4.3. Preliminary Conclusion 196
5. Implications for Korea in the Trade Policy Context 199
6. Concluding Remarks 203
Chapter V Conclusions 228
BIBLIOGRAPHY 233Docto
์๋ ๋ก๊ทธ ์ฒด์ ํ์ ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ: ๋์งํธ๋ฌด์ญ ์์ ํ์ ๋ฌด์ญํ์ ์ ์ญํ
ํ์๋
ผ๋ฌธ (์์ฌ)-- ์์ธ๋ํ๊ต ๊ตญ์ ๋ํ์ : ๊ตญ์ ํ๊ณผ, 2015. 2. ์๋๊ทผ.The growing pervasiveness of Internet connectivity and the widespread use of information communication technologies have helped cross-border digital trade expand. However, as digital trade mushrooms, governments are naturally tempted to set up protectionist trade policies to protect public morals or to safeguard the domestic service industry. This is where international trade agreements come in to prevent countries from adopting discriminatory trade policies and bring heterogeneous domestic disciplines in compliance with international ones. This paper aims to examine what contribution multilateral trade agreements/negotiations, the WTO dispute settlement body, and bilateral or regional trade agreements have made to promote the liberalization of digital trade.
At the multilateral trade negotiation level, several rounds of negotiation on digital trade was held based on the WTO Work Program on E-Commerce. However, WTO Member countries have agreed only on the temporary expansion of duty-free moratorium on electronic transmissions, failing to draw any concrete agreement on other thorny issues because of different national interests in digital trade.
The WTO dispute settlement body have had a chance to clarify digital trade-related issues in two trade disputes: US-Gambling and China-Publication. One of the greatest progress made in US โ Gambling is the confirmation that WTO rules are indeed applicable to e-commerce or electronically supplied services. It is also confirmed that GATS mode 1 (cross-border supply) commitments are applicable to cross-border electronic delivery of services. Yet in the two cases, Panels and the Appellate Body avoid to make a ruling on the issue of likeness and technical neutrality.
With the Doha Round in stalemate, major players in international digital trade are relying on bilateral or regional trade agreements to establish new rules applicable to digital trade. Several achievements are witnessed: the duty-free moratorium on digital products becomes permanentcountries take a pragmatic approach toward the classification of digital productsthe applicability of WTO rules to electronic commerce is confirmednon-discriminatory treatment is applicable to digital productsdeep digital trade rules start to appear. Yet WTO Member countries should make their best endeavor to make digital trade-relevant rules in bilateral or regional trade agreements compatible with one in the multilateral trading system.
Digital trade has become an integral part of multilateral trade negotiations and regional trade agreement negotiations. This study examines the liberalization movement of digital trade in three arenas: in WTO multilateral trade negotiations (WTO-led liberalization), in WTO dispute settlement body (DSB-led liberalization), and in regional trade agreements (RTA-led liberalization). Global trade environment surrounding digital trade, for the time being, is likely to be established through regional trade negotiations and common provisions in e-commerce chapters are expected to become a global trade norm. With few achievements so far, uncertainties about the future negotiation process make desire for global rules on digital trade nothing but swelling. Negotiation shall continue.ABSTRACT ............................................................................................. i
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................... iv
TABLES AND FIGURES..........................................................................vii
I. Introduction......................................................................................... 1
II. Economic Dimensions of Digital Trade ............................................... 7
1. Trade in Digitalized Media Products ................................................... 7
2. Trade in Digitally-Enabled Services .................................................. 10
III. Liberalization of Digital Trade and Multilateral Trade Agreements ............................................................................................................. 20
1. Information Technology Agreement and Basic Telecommunications Agreement ........................................................................................... 21
1) Information Technology Agreement (ITA) .......................................... 22
2) Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services and Reference Paper ................................................................................................... 25
2. WTO E-Commerce Work Program.................................................... 28 1) History of Trade Negotiations of E-Commerce.................................. 29 2) Issues under the WTO E-Commerce Work Program ......................... 35
i. Duty-Free Moratorium on Electronic Transmissions and their Contents ............................................................................................................ 35
ii. Classification of Digital Products.......................................................39
iii. Applicability of Regulatory GATS Disciplines to the Electronic
Delivery of Services ............................................................................. 43 iv. Classification of Electronically Delivered Services ........................... 46
v. Classification and Scheduling of Newly Developed Electronically Delivered Services ............................................................................... 49
vi. Likeness and Technological Neutrality .......................................... 52 vii. Applicability of GATS Article VI Relevant to Digital Trade ................ 55
viii. Applicability of GATS Article XIV to Digital Trade.............................57
IV. Liberalization of Digital Trade and Dispute Settlement .................... 59
1. US โ Gambling ................................................................................ 60 1) Applicability of Regulatory GATS Disciplines to the Electronic
Delivery of Services.............................................................................. 60 2) Classification of Electronically Delivered Services ............................ 62 3) Likeness and Technological Neutrality........................................... 63 4) Applicability of GATS Article XIV to Digital Trade ............................. 66
2. China โ Publications ........................................................................ 68
V. Liberalization of Digital Trade and Regional Trade Agreements......... 71
1. Digital Trade Policy of the United States............................................74
2. Assessing E-Commerce Chapters in Regional Trade Agreements......76
1) Achievements by Regional Trade Agreements.................................. 76
i. Duty-Free Moratorium on Electronic Transmissions and Their Contents ............................................................................................................ 76
ii. Classification of Digital Products.......................................................79
iii. Applicability of WTO Disciplines to E-Commerce..............................80
iv. Applicability of Regulatory Trade Disciplines to the Electronic Supply of Services........................................................................................... 81
v. Applicability of Non-Discriminatory Treatment to Digital Products ............................................................................................................. 82
vi. Deep Digital Trade Rules ................................................................. 85
vii. Other Issues Concerning Digital Trade............................................ 86
2) Summary and Evaluation on E-Commerce Chapters in RTAs.............89
VI. Conclusion...................................................................................... 92 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................... 97 ANNEX............................................................................................... 106
ABSTRACT IN KOREAN .................................................................... 109Maste