Do Firms Understand Employees? A Study of Employee Knowledge with Internal Market Orientation and Knowledge-Based View

[[abstract]]知識基礎觀點強調知識整合是鑲嵌於人資活動的歷程中，當人資知識愈易轉移時，企業較能創造競爭優勢；再者，過往研究也較少以內部市場導向觀點來探討員工知識的範疇。本研究綜合上述觀點，採用多重個案研究法探討以下三點：(1) 現今企業有何種共享性的關鍵人資知識與員工知識；(2) 這些知識在企業內部如何進行轉移；(3) 企業擁有這些知識後會產生何種影響。本研究從17 家個案分析中歸納出11 項命題，結果顯示：若知識屬性愈外顯化時，企業內部愈傾向採用垂直式轉移；當知識屬性較內隱時，則愈傾向採用水平式轉移；最後，若知識轉移過程愈順利，企業較易吸引人才、降低人事成本與離職率，以及提升員工效能。另外，針對本研究之結果也提供幾項管理意涵，供業界實務管理者參考。 According to the knowledge-based view perspective, knowledge is embedded in HR practices. If an organization’s HR knowledge is explicit and easy to transfer, the more likely it is that the organization can create more competitive advantage. Furthermore, previous HR studies have seldom focused on internal market orientation when discussing employee knowledge integration. This study adopts a multiple-case study method to delineate the domains of HR and employee knowledge in various Taiwanese industries, explores organizational knowledge transfer process, and discovers the impacts when an organization owns this knowledge. This study offers 11 propositions based on analysis from 17 cases. The results show that organizations mostly transfer knowledge through a vertical transfer mechanism when knowledge is more explicit and a horizontal transfer mechanism if knowledge is more implicit. Nevertheless, if knowledge has been transferred in the organization successfully, the organization can easily attract talent, reduce staffing costs and turnover rate, and increase employee productivity. This study also provides several practical implications and future directions for managers

A Study of Market Knowledge: A Conceptual Framework

過去研究一致認為市場知識概念是延伸自市場導向理論，卻鮮少致力於市場知識本質的探討。例如，市場知識指的僅來自顧客、競爭者層面？顧客、競爭者層面的知識為何？企業所知道的市場知識還包含哪些層面？另一方面，除了有哪些是影響市場知識的前因，以及企業有愈多市場知識時會有哪些結果？基於本議題屬於在探索性階段，因此本研究企圖填補此市場知識的重要缺口。本文包含兩個研究，研究一：探討市場知識本質，研究二：探討其前因、後果。為達此目的，本研究將採用探索導向的方式以闡述市場知識構念的範疇、提出可操作性的定義，及建構出一個較清晰的架構供後續未來研究使用。 本文針對研究一共訪談十五家個案，包含B2B、B2C以及共同經營兩種市場之企業。研究結果顯示市場知識共包含六大類別：顧客、員工（內部顧客）、夥伴、競爭者、商業流程、產品；對應過去文獻發現，顧客、夥伴、競爭者三者可歸類為外部市場知識，員工（內部顧客）、商業流程、產品則歸類為內部市場知識。本研究取名為「市場知識3C3P架構」，且各個知識層面下又有各自幾個關鍵知識議題。本文依研究結果發展七個與各知識層面有關的命題： 命題1：企業的顧客面知識以「顧客輪廓」、「顧客心理行為」、「顧客關係管理」為主。 命題2：企業的員工面知識以「人力資源活動」、「員工導向」、「績效確保」為主。 命題3：企業的競爭者面知識以「競爭者強度」、「競爭行動」為主。 命題4：企業的夥伴面知識以「交易夥伴特性」、「策略夥伴管理」為主。 命題5：企業的商業流程面知識以「結構與流程」、「管理IT應用」為主。 命題6：企業的產品知識以「產品組合」、「產品結構」為主。 命題7：企業在其產品-市場領域中，市場知識包含顧客、員工、競爭者、夥伴、商業流程、產品等六層面的知識。 研究一3C3P架構不僅是從市場導向理論出發，也從實務觀點凸顯出市場知識主要知識範疇。其結果除了擴展市場導向理論主張（顧客面、競爭者面知識範疇），也幫助對現有市場知識文獻的了解，以填補了既有市場知識文獻的限制。 依續，研究二共訪談二十家個案（包含研究一先前十五家個案）中分屬不同部門高階管理者，訪談業者也包含B2B、B2C以及共同經營兩種市場之企業。研究二奠基在市場導向、組織學習、知識基礎觀點、知識創造論等文獻上，發展出市場知識前因、中介、後果之架構並提出研究命題；本研究依據過去學理文獻萃取出這些構念摘述如下。 市場知識前因構念： (1) 組織結構及設計：市場情報部門設立、跨團隊知識部門化 (2) 組織學習特質：高階主管的承諾學習、企業整體的學習文化 (3) 知識分享制度：知識獎勵措施、知識提案制度 (4) 組織支持性資源：企業體知識盈餘、主管經驗知識、知識開發性資源 (5) 產業鏈知識網絡：顧客互動、夥伴關係連結 (6) 總體環境：第三方或業外學習、產業所屬組織及活動 市場知識中介構念： (1) 前置知識整合機制：統一格式、編碼設定、解讀分析 (2) 後置知識整合機制：討論溝通、擴散吸收、傳承保留(組織記憶) 市場知識後果構念： (1) 市場策略規劃：市場感知能力、行銷決策能力 (2) 行銷整合能力：行銷能力、行銷動態能力 (3) 行銷效率效能：行銷生產力 (4) 市場相關績效：顧客忠誠度、市場滲透（相關多角化）、產品品牌延伸、企業形象、風險趨避能力、吸引人才 基於所有研究結果，所有構念及命題將幫助引領未來探討市場知識之研究。最後，本文將討論對理論之貢獻、管理實務意涵，以及本文之研究限制。Although there is consensus in the marketing literature that market knowledge is reflected by market orientation, there is little insight into the nature of market knowledge. For example, is market knowledge for firms only from customer and competitor orientations (i.e., customer and competitor knowledge)? What natures of customer and competitor knowledge? What contents or dimensions does market knowledge include? Besides, what antecedents and consequents of market knowledge are? Given the exploratory nature of this study, the aim is to fill the important gap in the market knowledge literature. This thesis includes two studies, first one is to explore the nature of market knowledge and second one is to explore its antecedents and consequences. To this end, this study adopts discovery-oriented approach to delineate the domain of the market knowledge construct, provide an operational definition, and construct a comprehensive framework for directing future research. The current study has interviewed fifteen companies (including B2B, B2C, and both of B2B and B2C) for study 1. The results show that there are six categories of market knowledge, which is called the framework of 3C plus 3P: external Customer, internal Customer (employee), Competitor, Partner, business Process, and Product. Based on previous literature, external Customer, Competitor, and Partner are categorized as the domain of external market knowledge; internal Customer (employee), business Process, and Product are categorized as the domain of internal market knowledge. There are several strategic issues in each category of market knowledge. Based on the findings, study 1 concludes seven propositions that the constitute elements of market knowledge are principally emerged from: P1: Customer knowledge of firms comprises (1) customer profile, (2) customer relationship management, and (3) customer psychology and behavior. P2: Internal customer (employee) knowledge of firms comprises (1) employee orientation, (2) human resource activity, and (3) performance sureness. P3: Competitor knowledge of firms comprises (1) rivals’ strategies/actions and (2) firms’competitive actions. P4: Partner knowledge of firms comprises (1) the characteristics of transactional partner and (2) strategic partner management. P5: Business process knowledge of firms comprises (1) structure and process and (2) managerial IT application. P6: Product knowledge of firms comprises (1) product pofolio and (2) product structure. P7: Market knowledge of firms in their product-market comprises (1) customer, (2) internal customer (employee), (3) competitor, (4) partner, (5) business process, and (6) product. The framework of “3C plus 3P” highlights the key role of market knowledge characteristics not only drawn from MO literature but also extracted from practitioner-based perspective. The result extends the understanding of market knowledge and fulfills the limitation of literature development in addition to extend the assertion of MO-related discipline. Because the generalizability of the results is limited, it is thus important to test the results in the future. Subsequently, study 2 conducts field interviews with higher managers in diverse functions and organizations (including B2B, B2C, and both of B2B and B2C). This article is on the basis of market orientation, organizational learning, knowledge-based view and knowledge creation theory to develop an integrating framework and twelve research propositions. The framework concludes the antecedents, mediators, and consequences of market knowledge. The study 2 drawing from theoretical literature extracts and names these constructs: Antecedents include: (1) organization structures and designs: building market information section, sectionalization of cross-team knowledge-creation. (2) characteristics of organizational learning: learning commitment of higher managers and overall learning culture. (3) knowledge sharing sytem: incentives for knowledge sharing and policy of knowledge proposals. (4) organizational supporting resources: knowledge slacks, managers’ experiential knowledge, and resources of knowledge development. (5) knowledge network of industrial chain: customer interaction and partnerships linkage. (6) macro environment: learning from third-parties/non-business domain and participation of industry-related organizations/activities. Mediators include: (1) ex ante mechanism of knowledge integration: normalization of knowledge format, coding set, and interpretation with analysis. (2) ex post mechanism of knowledge integration: discution and communiocation, dissemination by absorption, and keep remaing within firm. Consequents include: (1) market strategy planning: capabilities of market-sensing and decision-making. (2) marketing integration capability: marketing capability/productivity and marketing dynamic capability. (3) marketing efficiency and effectiveness (productivity). (4) market-related performance: customer loyalty, market penetration or related diversification, product brand extension, firm image, and risk aversion, and human capitals attraction. Based on all of results, all constructs and proposition would be a guide of further research of market knowledge. Finally, contributions for theoies, implications for management practice, and research limitation are also discussed

[[alternative]]The Social Norms of Organ Transaction: the Body and Governmentality

[[abstract]]　　在當前國內法令明文規定器官僅能無償捐贈之下，移植器官的供需失衡逐年日益嚴重，雖然有眾多研究者為解決該情形，紛紛提出各項政策建議，以改善此一供需問題，但「器官交易」合法化的這個選項，從現有的法律及社會規範等研究面向而言，幾乎一面倒的遭到反對與否決。但本文並非也是欲提出何種解決器官短缺的方法，而是呈現出器官交易的反對與禁止，為何如此被人們視為「理所當然」的脈絡，乃至於有當今的法律禁制與社會實踐，因此本文主要立基於建構論與傅科（Michel Foucault）的權力分析，來探討社會論述╱制度是如何建構出「身體」的概念，及又為何禁止活體器官交易，以了解隱藏其後的權力運作和機制。　　　　現今移植器官無法進行買賣，主要取決於社會規範與法律強制這二個面向，本文則分別從這二個軸線來著手。在社會規範方面，首先試問在現代生活中有多少場合，身體器官能具體、直接地出現於人們眼前而被吾人所凝視？這種情形正是受到國家的影響所致，因為國家對暴力的壟斷與運作，並非是直接和可見的強制與懲罰，而是伊里亞斯（Norbert Elias）所說對人民施予廣泛且不易察覺的「文明」壓力，亦即傅科的抹除死亡意義等多元的權力技術，所以不再有公開的解剖與處決儀式，人們的目光已遠離了預期會發生的血腥場景，使得在現代社會之中，身體器官有了不可見性，乃至產生了與身體的不可切割性，並且隨著身體「弔詭」的歷史脈絡與文明的「規訓」，偶發建構了目前活體器官交易和人性尊嚴、公平、剝削等等有關的污名化論述。　　　　另外一軸線法律強制方面，阿岡本（Giorgio Agamben）認為在當代生命政治的視野下，國家主權就在於把每個面向它的生命，都轉化為一種潛在地可以被抽離、剝除其各種生命形式的「裸命」（bare-life），所以從這一點來看，急需移植器官以延續生命的人，都必須成為隨時可以死亡的裸命。因為就國家而言，允許活體器官交易，必然對其生命政治產生衝擊，如「標準」的身體、人口的生產力等等，是故政府便以法律的強制形式加以禁止，而現有的身體規範與社會認知，則恰好成為國家禁止最「名正言順」的理由。　　　　因此在器官交易的禁制這個問題上面，國家治理透過死亡意義的消失，連接著社會規範，而在這三者串連而成的脈絡之中，達成了現今禁止的社會實踐。是故可以這麼說，目前人們所具有反對活體器官交易的思想框架，與因之而來被認為必須禁止的法律規定，其實都完全源自於國家的影響與控制，只是除了顯而易見的法律強制之外，更重要的是還有極端細緻、隱而不現的權力作用。誠然，權力無所不在，但真正必須去注意的卻是隱藏於「理所當然」之中的權力操作，因為正如同伊里亞斯所言，國家統治所針對的就是人民的人格結構和心態

遊憩涉入、場所依賴與場所認同因果關係之研究：以東豐綠色走廊遊憩自行車使用者爲例

[[abstract]]遊憩自行車活動已逐漸被推廣為全民運動，各專責單位如何籌設 具有十足吸引力又實用的自行車道非常重要。本研究依結構方程模式，探 討遊憩使用者在從事自行車活動時所展現遊憩涉入的程度（吸引力、自我 表現及生活形態中心）對場所產生場所依賴及場所認同之關係，並以場所 依賴為中介變數。此外，依據遊憩者的居住地不同分為當地群與外縣市群 （造訪頻次不同），以恆等性檢定探討遊憩涉入及場所依賴及場所認同之 關係架構是否恆等。本研究以臺中縣東豐綠色走廊從事遊憩自行車活動之 使用者為研究對象，使用便利抽樣法，共計發出600份問卷，有效問卷計有 553份，回收率為92.17%。研究結果發現，除吸引力對場所認同關係未獲得 實證支持外，本文的理論架構與研究假設大都獲得支持，並經當地群與外 縣市群在本架構模式中恆等性獲得支持後，且當地群比外縣市群在各構念 感受度較高。本文並根據研究發現提出理論意涵與未來研究建議

Using Social Network Theory to Explore the Effect of Market Knowledge on Innovation in Service Industries: A Case of Travel Agencies

[[abstract]]過去不少服務業者和學術界重視市場知識對企業創新的重要性。理應上，市場知識對創新之關係應呈現正向相關性，但近期研究指出兩者間關係無明確定論。本研究主張不一致結果乃過去多數研究將市場知識和創新皆視為單一整體的構念，以及視兩者間為線性關係的假設有關。因此，本研究從社會網絡理論來探討市場知識歧異性與市場知識的鑲嵌性分別對於產品創新和流程創新的關係，檢驗兩者間是否存在非線性之關係。本研究以旅遊服務業為實證範疇，結果顯示市場知識歧異性對產品創新、流程創新皆呈現非線性的影響關係，其呈現趨陡遞增的非線性效果。市場知識鑲嵌性則對產品創新、流程創新績效有正向效果，並沒有非線性效果存在。最後，本文將根據研究結果提出理論貢獻、管理意涵與未來研究建議。 Managers and scholars in service industry have paid attentions on the relationship between market knowledge and innovation. Theoretically, market knowledge should be associated with innovation positively but the results indicated a positive, non-significant and negative relationship between market knowledge and innovation. This study asserts that the inconsistent outcomes were resulted of treating market knowledge and innovation as single overall construct and because of the assumption of linear linkage. Therefore, this study is on the basis of social network theory and investigates the impacts of specific knowledge characteristics on two different innovations (product and process), especially testing their non-linear relationship. Under the setting of travel service industry, the empirical results indicate that market knowledge disparity has a non-linear effect on product and process innovations, and its positive effect is significant increasingly. On the other hand, market knowledge embeddedness only has positive effect on product and process innovations. Finally, this study will offer some management implications and suggestion in further studies according to the result in the future

Using Means-End Chain to Explore the Benefits, Experiences, and Values of Hakka Cultural Tourism

[[abstract]]本文檢視遊客在客家地區文化觀光，從中尋求何種利益，如何與個人深層價值做為連結，產生與其期望相符合之體驗與價值。本文以方法目的鏈模式為理論基礎，探討遊客在客家文化觀光後所獲得的價值過程，透過面對面訪談與網路通訊軟體兩種方式進行一對一深度訪談，逐步引導遊客說出客家文化觀光在其心中最抽象之價值。本文歸納出客家文化觀光之特色因素共有：油桐花、客家美食、客家建築、手工藝品、民俗風情、族群精神、自然風景等七項；感受的結果有:親切、愉悅、放鬆、新鮮有趣、幸福滿足、瞭解當地、懷舊、歷史意義等八項；獲得的價值有增廣見聞、增進友誼、難忘回憶、家庭和睦、沉澱心靈、重遊當地、豐富生活、文化認同、人生動力等九項價值。 This study examines the cultural tourists in the Hakka area to identify how they benefit from cultural tourism and to determine how their personal values are linked to such tourism, which generates an experience and value consistent with their expectations. This research uses means-end chain as the theoretical basis, exploring the process of how Hakka cultural tourists acquire value. By means of in-depth face-to-face interviews and network communication software, the study identifies the visitors' most abstract values of Hakka cultural tourism that are close to their hearts, which include seven attributes (tung blossom, Hakka cuisine, Hakka architecture, handicrafts, folk customs, ethnic spirit, and natural scenery), eight consequences (kindness, pleasure, relaxation, fresh and interesting, happiness and satisfaction, understanding the local, nostalgia, historical significance), and nine values (knowledge boost, friendship enhancement, unforgettable memories, family harmony, calm mind, revisiting, enriching life, cultural identity, and life force)