Urban green space: the incorporation of environmental values in a decision support system.

This paper provides an overview of work undertaken on measuring the environmental values of green spaces, coupled with spatial analysis tools for aiding decision relating to the planning of urban green spaces. The work involved a complex array of data collection and analysis packages, including a case study inventory, public participation, methodological design, visualisation, and the analysis of survey results. A central aspect of the research aimed at providing the decision maker with data that combined the visualisation of open public green space with environmental economics. As part of a methodology using contingent rating which aimed to establish the values placed on specific green space sites, three dimensional computer models were used to produce visualisations of particular environmental conditions. The study demonstrates that visualisation tools are appropriate to represent a range of attributes for inclusion within environmental economic surveys, and that the resulting datasets can be used within GIS-based decision support models to indicate levels of preference and patterns of use. The focus of this paper is on the integration of the visualisations of green spaces, a contingent rating survey and the compilation of an open space inventory, as part of a GIS-based decision support system. Results from the study and its potential implications for future study and practice are discussed

Implementation of computer visualisation in UK planning

PhD ThesisWithin the processes of public consultation and development management, planners are required to consider spatial information, appreciate spatial transformations and future scenarios. In the past, conventional media such as maps, plans, illustrations, sections, and physical models have been used. Those traditional visualisations are at a high degree of abstraction, sometimes difficult to understand for lay people and inflexible in terms of the range of scenarios which can be considered. Yet due to technical advances and falling costs, the potential for computer based visualisation has much improved and has been increasingly adopted within the planning process. Despite the growth in this field, insufficient consideration has been given to the possible weakness of computerised visualisations. Reflecting this lack of research, this study critically evaluates the use and potential of computerised visualisation within this process. The research is divided into two components: case study analysis and reflections of the author following his involvement within the design and use of visualisations in a series of planning applications; and in-depth interviews with experienced practitioners in the field. Based on a critical review of existing literature, this research explores in particular the issues of credibility, realism and costs of production. The research findings illustrate the importance of the credibility of visualisations, a topic given insufficient consideration within the academic literature. Whereas the realism of visualisations has been the focus of much previous research, the results of the case studies and interviews with practitioners undertaken in this research suggest a ‘photo’ realistic level of details may not be required as long as the observer considers the visualisations to be a credible reflection of the underlying reality. Although visualisations will always be a simplification of reality and their level of realism is subjective, there is still potential for developing guidelines or protocols for image production based on commonly agreed standards. In the absence of such guidelines there is a danger that scepticism in the credibility of computer visualisations will prevent the approach being used to its full potential. These findings suggest there needs to be a balance between scientific protocols and artistic licence in the production of computer visualisation. In order to be sufficiently credible for use in decision making within the planning processes, the production of computer visualisation needs to follow a clear methodology and scientific protocols set out in good practice guidance published by professional bodies and governmental organisations.Newcastle upon Tyne for awarding me an International Scholarship and Alumni Bursar

Spatially optimised sustainable urban development

PhD ThesisTackling urbanisation and climate change requires more sustainable and resilient cities, which in turn will require planners to develop a portfolio of measures to manage climate risks such as flooding, meet energy and greenhouse gas reduction targets, and prioritise development on brownfield sites to preserve greenspace. However, the policies, strategies and measures put in place to meet such objectives can frequently conflict with each other or deliver unintended consequences, hampering long-term sustainability. For example, the densification of cities in order to reduce transport energy use can increase urban heat island effects and surface water flooding from extreme rainfall events. In order to make coherent decisions in the presence of such complex multi-dimensional spatial conflicts, urban planners require sophisticated planning tools to identify and manage potential trade-offs between the spatial strategies necessary to deliver sustainability. To achieve this aim, this research has developed a multi-objective spatial optimisation framework for the spatial planning of new residential development within cities. The implemented framework develops spatial strategies of required new residential development that minimize conflicts between multiple sustainability objectives as a result of planning policy and climate change related hazards. Five key sustainability objectives have been investigated, namely; (i) minimizing risk from heat waves, (ii) minimizing the risk from flood events, (iii) minimizing travel costs in order to reduce transport emissions, (iv) minimizing urban sprawl and (v) preventing development on existing greenspace. A review identified two optimisation algorithms as suitable for this task. Simulated Annealing (SA) is a traditional optimisation algorithm that uses a probabilistic approach to seek out a global optima by iteratively assessing a wide range of spatial configurations against the objectives under consideration. Gradual ‘cooling’, or reducing the probability of jumping to a different region of the objective space, helps the SA to converge on globally optimal spatial patterns. Genetic Algorithms (GA) evolve successive generations of solutions, by both recombining attributes and randomly mutating previous generations of solutions, to search for and converge towards superior spatial strategies. The framework works towards, and outputs, a series of Pareto-optimal spatial plans that outperform all other plans in at least one objective. This approach allows for a range of best trade-off plans for planners to choose from. ii Both SA and GA were evaluated for an initial case study in Middlesbrough, in the North East of England, and were able to identify strategies which significantly improve upon the local authority’s development plan. For example, the GA approach is able to identify a spatial strategy that reduces the travel to work distance between new development and the central business district by 77.5% whilst nullifying the flood risk to the new development. A comparison of the two optimisation approaches for the Middlesbrough case study revealed that the GA is the more effective approach. The GA is more able to escape local optima and on average outperforms the SA by 56% in in the Pareto fronts discovered whilst discovering double the number of multi-objective Pareto-optimal spatial plans. On the basis of the initial Middlesbrough case study the GA approach was applied to the significantly larger, and more computationally complex, problem of optimising spatial development plans for London in the UK – a total area of 1,572km2. The framework identified optimal strategies in less than 400 generations. The analysis showed, for example, strategies that provide the lowest heat risk (compared to the feasible spatial plans found) can be achieved whilst also using 85% brownfield land to locate new development. The framework was further extended to investigate the impact of different development and density regulations. This enabled the identification of optimised strategies, albeit at lower building density, that completely prevent any increase in urban sprawl whilst also improving the heat risk objective by 60% against a business as usual development strategy. Conversely by restricting development to brownfield the ability of the spatial plan to optimise future heat risk is reduced by 55.6% against the business as usual development strategy. The results of both case studies demonstrate the potential of spatial optimisation to provide planners with optimal spatial plans in the presence of conflicting sustainability objectives. The resulting diagnostic information provides an analytical appreciation of the sensitivity between conflicts and therefore the overall robustness of a plan to uncertainty. With the inclusion of further objectives, and qualitative information unsuitable for this type of analysis, spatial optimization can constitute a powerful decision support tool to help planners to identify spatial development strategies that satisfy multiple sustainability objectives and provide an evidence base for better decision making

Urban planning and climate change mitigation: using virtual reality to support the design of a university master plan extension.

The aim of the research described in this chapter is to explore the use of intelligent virtual transport modelling within the context of a case study involving the development of a university estate. Through the application of visualisation techniques, the study was able to explore how such techniques can lead to enlightenment of potential solutions, whilst simultaneously demonstrating the effects of design solutions on CO2 emissions. Such an approach leads to a better understanding of the transport complexity from the perspective of potential clients and users. Although images and physical models of the case study were appreciated by stakeholders, these did not provide more information than their current state and could not help in making funded decision by decision making community. Animated data, including calculated predictions of the effect of design on daily vehicles, human traffic, and CO2 emission, enlivened and illuminated the designed situation, and allowed decision makers to appreciate the real current and potential challenges

An exploration of the relationship between greenspaces, physical activity and health

A growing body of evidence investigates whether access to greenspace, such as parks and woodland, is beneficial to health and well-being. Potential health benefits include physical and social activities within the space and psychological benefits of interacting with nature. However, findings from empirical research investigating relationships between greenspace access and health outcomes are mixed and there are major gaps in current understanding about the underlying causal mechanisms. This thesis explores the relationship between access to greenspace and health outcomes, with a particular focus on examining use of different types of greenspaces for physical activity. Firstly, a systematic literature review is undertaken to evaluate studies examining relationships between access and obesity related health outcomes and behaviours. An evidence-based theoretical framework is then presented, which documents the relationship between access and health, illustrating potential moderating and mediating factors. Using data from the PEACH study, a sample of global positioning system (GPS) and accelerometer data collected from children, two studies are presented: Analysis of how much activity occurs within different types of urban greenspace, and a test of associations between access to greenspace and time and moderate-vigorous activity within it. A third study analyses the Active People Survey, a sample of 190,000 adults across England, to test associations between neighbourhood greenness and recreational walking and explore if such associations mediate relationships with mortality. Results show that living nearer greenspace is associated with recording more physical activity within it (for children) and higher levels of recreational walking (for adults). This supports the potential value of greenspace as a health promoting resource. Whilst this also supports the possibility that physical activity within greenspace is a mediator in relationships between access and wider health outcomes, the results do not support this conclusion and indicate that other mediators, such as psychosocial factors, may be more important

Photorealistic visualisation of urban greening in a low-cost high- density housing settlement.

Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.Apartheid housing policies of the pre-1994 South African government, and the low-cost highdensity housing programmes of the post-1994 government, has given rise to numerous urban environmental problems, some of which could be addressed in a cost-effective and sustainable manner through urban greening, while simultaneously promoting biodiversity. Public participation in the planning of urban greening has been identified as being of vital importance, without which urban greening projects run a high, and expensive, risk of failure. Previous studies indicate that the greening priorities of residents in low-cost high-density housing settlements may differ considerably from those of managers and experts tasked with the protection and extension of the natural environment resource base. A system of participatory decision support is therefore required to reconcile the greening requirements of the community, and the ecological benefits of biodiversity. If language, literacy, map literacy and numeracy difficulties are to be avoided, and a sense of place or belonging is to be invoked, such a participatory decision support system should, ideally, be visually based, and capable of generating realistic eye-level depictions of the urban landscape. New computer-based landscape visualisation applications, which can directly utilise GIS, CAD and DEM data to produce detailed photo-realistic viewsheds, were deemed better suited to the task of visualising urban greening than existing GIS based mapping systems, CAD and traditional landscape visualisation methods. This dissertation examines the process of constructing a 3D computer model of the Mount Royal low-cost high-density housing settlement, situated in the eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Visualisations including terrain, natural features, indigenous vegetation, houses and roads were produced and submitted, with a questionnaire, to experts from different disciplines, Mount Royal residents and neighbors. Results from the expert survey indicate moderate support for visualisation in professional decision-making. However, both experts and residents expressed strong support for the accuracy and credibility ofthe visualisations, as well as for their potential in a participatory decision support system

Investigation Into the Physical Environmental Correlates of Aggressive Behaviour in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDDs)

Background: Physical environmental influences on childhood aggression in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities is a severely under-researched research locus. The aim of this doctorate was to elucidate specific associations between children’s developmental environment and aggressive behaviours, using this evidence to reciprocally inform an experimental psychology project to investigate underlying mechanisms. To explore these effects, the programme of study was broadly divided into three reflexive workstreams using diverse research methodologies. Methods: In the first workstream, I conducted a systematic review of the current literature examining physical environmental influences on childhood aggressive behaviours in both typically developing children (aged 0 – 18) and those diagnosed with NDDs. The literature on children with NDDs was substantially limited in comparison to peers without NDDs. The second workstream was comprised of a large-scale secondary data analysis (multiply imputed growth curve modelling) to investigate environmental influences on conduct problems across early development. I used data from the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) to assess how physical environmental metrics, such as neighbourhood greenspace, air pollution, household crowding, and presence of home damp influenced the development and severity of conduct problems in children with (n=8013) and without NDDs (n=155) between the ages of 3 – 11 years. Finally, building upon evidence from the previous two workstreams, I designed a proof-of-principle psychological experiment to examine the influence of urban nature exposure on children with NDDs. Specifically, simulating a real-world urban greenspace using a Person-Environment-Activity Research Laboratory (PEARL). This facilitated the ability to manipulate and isolate individual environmental aspects of urban nature exposure (light, sound, and projection). Following ethical review and approval, I recruited 3 children (100% male) with mild and moderate intellectual disability aged between 12 – 15 years (Mean age = 14) attending a local school for children with special educational needs. We examined their physiological reactions to four simulated urban green space aspects (light, sound, landscape projections, and vegetation) against a baseline control condition. I also collected demographic information on parent reported aggressive behaviours, exposure to local greenspace(s), physical and mental health history, medication, and adaptive behaviours (ABAS-3). This research lays the foundation for future large scale experimental paradigms that can disentangle the effects of nature exposure in these children, with the aim of translating these findings into real world therapeutic design interventions and relevant policy changes to improve the quality of the built environment for these children. Findings: From articles retrieved from my systematic review I found evidence for the beneficial influences of nature in both populations, and simultaneously negative effects of both noise and air pollution in typically developing children only. Evidence for other environmental aspects such as crowding, music, urbanicity, meteorology, and interior design had either insufficient or inconsistent evidence to extrapolate concreate conclusions. More evidence on the effect of these exposures on child aggression outcomes is recommended. From the analysis of the MCS cohort I found various sociodemographic factors (ethnicity, sex, poverty, family structure, maternal distress) and internal residential conditions were associated with increased childhood conduct problem trajectories in both groups of children. I also discovered potential evidence of a moderating influence effect of intellectual disability on the relationship between spatial density and conduct problems. From the final experimental project, I report preliminary evidence for the influence of urban greenspaces to reduce physiological arousal in children with complex neurodisability profiles. Initial evidence for the hierarchical nature of urban greenspace sensorial aspects was reported, for example: that urban nature soundscapes maybe a more influential environmental stimuli than lighting or landscape projections. Conclusion: Drawing together multi-disciplinary research methodologies facilitated the ability to identify disparities in research examining physical environmental determinants of aggression in neurodiverse child populations. Reciprocally, the systematic review and secondary data analysis contributed incrementally to filling this lacuna of research. Using findings from these two work streams, I identified that exploring the potentially therapeutic influences of urban nature exposure on children with neurodevelopmental disorders may provide novel indicators of its aetiological mechanisms. I reported original findings supporting these research aims, elucidating the potential hierarchical nature of urban greenspace elements. This was also the first study of its kind reporting the potential for simulated urban park spaces to reduce physiological arousal in neurodivergent children with aggressive behavioural difficulties